Review: Northern Ontario medicinal plants

Canadian Journal of Plant Science

Volumn 92, Issue 5, 2012, Pages 815-828

  Hassan, Haider M ^a   Jiang, Zi Hua ^b   Syed, Tarannum A ^c   Qin, Wensheng ^a  

^a LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^b LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^c TRENT UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

Anti cancer; Anti microbial; Drug discovery; Medicinal plants; Northern Ontario; Traditional medicine

Indexed keywords

ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY; BIOACTIVITY; CANCER; DISEASE INCIDENCE; DISEASE TREATMENT; DRUG DEVELOPMENT; ETHNOBOTANY; FERN; GRASS; HERB; INCENTIVE; INFECTIOUS DISEASE; LITERATURE REVIEW; MEDICINAL PLANT; MORTALITY; PHYTOCHEMISTRY; QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY; SEDGE; SHRUB; TWENTIETH CENTURY; VINE;

CANADA; ONTARIO [CANADA];

CAREX; FILICOPHYTA; HYPERICUM; HYPERICUM CANADENSE; HYPERICUM MAJUS; HYPERICUM MUTILUM; POACEAE; SCUTELLARIA; SCUTELLARIA GALERICULATA; SCUTELLARIA LATERIFLORA; SCUTELLARIA PARVULA;

EID: 84865817144     PISSN: 00084220     EISSN: 19181833     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.4141/CJPS2012-006     Document Type: Review

References (162)

1. Abascal, K. and Yarnell, E. 2008. Botanical medicine for cystitis. Altern. Complement. Ther. 14: 69-77.
2. Ahmad, I., Mehmood, Z. and Mohammad, F. 1998. Screening of some Indian medicinal plants for their antimicrobial properties. J. Ethnopharmacol. 62: 183-193.
3. Ainge, G. D., Lorimer, S. D., Gerard, P. J. and Ruf, L. D. 2002. Insecticidal activity of huperzine A from the New Zealand clubmoss, Lycopodium varium. J. Agric. Food Chem. 50: 491-494.
4. Albert, D., Zündorf, I., Dingermann, T., Müller, W. E., Steinhilber, D. and Werz, O. 2002. Hyperforin is a dual inhibitor of cyclooxygenase-1 and 5-lipoxygenase. Biochem. Pharmacol. 64: 1767-1775.
5. Amarowicz, R., Pegg, R. B., Rahimi-Moghaddam, P., Barl, B. and Weil, J. A. 2004. Free-radical scavenging capacity and antioxidant activity of selected plant species from the Canadian prairies. Food Chem. 84: 551-562.
6. Ames, B. N., Gold, L. S. and Willett, W. C. 1995. The causes and prevention of cancer. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 92: 5258.
7. An, M., Pratley, J. E., Haig, T. and Liu, D. L. 2005. Whole-range assessment: a simple method for analyzing allelopathic dose-response data. Nonlinearity Biol. Toxicol. Med. 3: 245-259.
8. Argus, G. W., Coupe, R., MacKinnon, A. and Pojar, J. 1999. Plants of Northern British Columbia. Lone Pine Publishing, Edmonton, AB. 352 pp.
9. Arnason, T., Hebda, R. J. and Johns, T. 1981. Use of plants for food and medicine by native peoples of eastern Canada. Can. J. Bot. 59: 2189-2325.
10. Bai, D. L. 1993. Traditional Chinese medicines and new drug development. Pure Appl. Chem. 65: 1103-1112.
11. Barile, E., Bonanomi, G., Antignani, V., Zolfaghari, B., Sajjadi, S. E., Scala, F. and Lanzotti, V. 2007. Saponins from Allium minutiflorum with antifungal activity. Phytochemistry 68: 596-603.
12. Barnes, J., Anderson, L. A. and Phillipson, J. D. 2001. St John's wort (Hypericum perforatum L.): a review of its chemistry, pharmacology and clinical properties. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 53: 583-600.
13. Bekesiova, I., Nap, J. P. and Mlynarova, L. 1999. Isolation of high quality DNA and RNA from leaves of the carnivorous plant Drosera rotundifolia. Plant Mol. Biol. Rep. 17: 269-277.
14. Benkeblia, N. 2004. Antimicrobial activity of essential oil extracts of various onions (Allium cepa) and garlic (Allium sativum) Lebensm.-Wiss. Technol. 37: 263-268.
15. Benthin, B., Danz, H. and Hamburger, M. 1999. Pressurized liquid extraction of medicinal plants. J. Chromatogr. 837: 211-219.
16. Betoni, J. E., Mantovani, R. P., Barbosa, L. N., Di Stasi, L. C. and Fernandes Junior, A. 2006. Synergism between plant extract and antimicrobial drugs used on Staphylococcus aureus diseases. Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz. 101: 387-390.
17. Borchardt, J. R., Wyse, D. L., Sheaffer, C. C., Kauppi, K. L., Fulcher, R. G., Ehlke, N. J., Biesboer, D. D. and Bey, R. F. 2008. Antimicrobial activity of native and naturalized plants of Minnesota and Wisconsin. J. Med. Plants Res. 2: 98-110.
18. Brock, A., Herzfeld, T., Paschke, R., Koch, M. and Dräger, B. 2006. Brassicaceae contain nortropane alkaloids. Phytochemistry 67: 2050-2057.
19. Bryan, M., Bryan, S., McClymont, T. and North, E. 1993. Checklist of vascular plants of Thunder Bay district. 1st ed. Thunder Bay Field Naturalist, Thunder Bay, ON. 58 pp.
20. Bryant, J. P., Reichardt, P. B. and Clausen, T. P. 1992. Chemically mediated interactions between woody plants and browsing mammals. J. Range Manage. 45: 18-24.
21. Buchsbaum, R., Valiela, I. and Swain, T. 1984. The role of phenolic compounds and other plant constituents in feeding by Canada geese in a coastal marsh. Oecologia 63: 343-349.
22. Burden, R. S. and Kemp, M. S. 1984. Sesquiterpene phytoalexins from Ulmus glabra. Phytochemistry 23: 383-385.
23. Bussmann, R. W., Sharon, D., Perez, F., Díaz, D., Ford, T., Rasheed, T. and Silva, Y. B. R. 2008. Antibacterial activity of northern-peruvian medicinal plants. Arnaldoa 15: 127-148.
24. Cantos, E., Espín, J. C., López-Bote, C., de la Hoz, L., Ordóñez, J. A. and Tomá s-Barberá n, F. A. 2003. Phenolic compounds and fatty acids from acorns (Quercus spp.), the main dietary constituent of free-ranged Iberian pigs. J. Agric. Food Chem. 51: 6248-6255.
25. Carlson, H. J., Douglas, H. G. and Robertson, J. 1948. Antibacterial substances separated from plants. J. Bacteriol. 55: 241-248.
26. Carpenter, D. J. 2011. St. John's wort and S-adenosyl methionine as "natural" alternatives to conventional antidepressants in the era of the suicidality boxed warning: what is the evidence for clinically relevant benefit? Altern. Med. Rev. 16: 17-39.
27. Cerdeiras, M. P., Albores, S., Etcheverry, S., Lucian, V., Soubes, M. and Vazquez, A. 2007. Antimicrobial activity of Xanthium cavanillesii extracts. Pharm. Biol. 45: 251-254.
28. Cha, Y. Y., Lee, E. O., Lee, H. J., Park, Y. D., Ko, S. G., Kim, D. H., Kim, H. M., Kang, I. C. and Kim, S. H. 2004. Methylene chloride fraction of Scutellaria barbata induces apoptosis in human U937 leukemia cells via the mitochondrial signaling pathway. Clin. Chim. Acta 348: 41-48.
29. Chan, K. 2003. Some aspects of toxic contaminants in herbal medicines. Chemosphere 52: 1361-1371.
30. Chevallier, A. 1996. The encyclopedia of medicinal plants. 1st ed. Dorling Kindersley, Bedford, NS. 336 pp.
31. Choo, C. Y., Hirasawa, Y., Karimata, C., Koyama, K., Sekiguchi, M., Kobayashi, J. and Morita, H. 2007. Carinatumins A-C, new alkaloids from Lycopodium carinatum inhibiting acetylcholinesterase. Bioorg. Med. Chem. 15: 1703-1707.
32. Coe, F. G. and Anderson, G. J. 1996. Screening of medicinal plants used by the Garífuna of eastern Nicaragua for bioactive compounds. J. Ethnopharmacol. 53: 29-50.
33. Copp, B. R. 2003. Antimycobacterial natural products. Nat. Prod. Rep. 20: 535-557.
34. Cutler, H. G. 1985. Secondary metabolites from plants and their allelochemic effects. Bioregulators for pest control. American Chemical Society, Washington, DC. pp. 455-468.
35. Çirak, C., Raduvsiene, J., Janulis, V. and Ivanauskas, L. 2007. Secondary metabolites in Hypericum perfoliatum: variation among plant parts and phenological stages. Bot. Helv. 117: 29-36.
36. Dall'Agnol, R., Ferraz, A., Bernardi, A. P., Albring, D., Nör, C., Sarmento, L., Lamb, L., Hass, M., von Poser, G. and Schapoval, E. E. S. 2003. Antimicrobial activity of some Hypericum species. Phytomedicine 10: 511-516.
37. Daniel, M. 2006. Medicinal plants: chemistry and properties. Science Publ. Inc., Enfield, NH. 266 pp.
38. Datta, B. K., Datta, S. K., Rashid, M. A., Nash, R. J. and Sarker, S. D. 2000. A sesquiterpene acid and flavonoids from Polygonum viscosum. Phytochemistry 54: 201-205.
39. De Keukeleire, J., Ooms, G., Heyerick, A., Roldan-Ruiz, I., Van Bockstaele, E. and De Keukeleire, D. 2003. Formation and accumulation of alpha-acids, beta-acids, desmethylxanthohumol, and xanthohumol during flowering of hops (Humulus lupulus L.). J. Agric. Food Chem. 51: 4436-4441.
40. De La Rosa, T. M., Julkunen-Tiitto, R., Lehto, T. and Aphalo, P. J. 2001. Secondary metabolites and nutrient concentrations in silver birch seedlings under five levels of daily UV-B exposure and two relative nutrient addition rates. New Phytol. 150: 121-131.
41. Dorman, H. J. D. and Deans, S. G. 2000. Antimicrobial agents from plants: antibacterial activity of plant volatile oils. J. Appl. Microbiol. 88: 308-316.
42. Dreikorn, K. 2000. Phytotherapeutic agents in the treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia. Curr. Urol. Rep. 1: 103-109.
43. Duinker, P., Matakala, P. and Zhang, D. 1991. Community forestry and its implications for Northern Ontario. For. Chron. 67: 131-135.
44. Edilmesi, F. B. T. 2002. Induction of phytoalexin accumulation in broad bean (Vicia faba L.) cotyledons following treatments with biotic and abiotic elicitors. Turk. J. Agric. For. 26: 343-348.
45. Etkin, N. L. 2008. An ethnobotany of Darwin's gardens. Ethnobotany research and applications. 6: 325-334.
46. Fajer, E. D., Bowers, M. D. and Bazzaz, F. A. 1992. The effect of nutrients and enriched CO2 environments on production of carbon-based allelochemicals in Plantago: a test of the carbon/nutrient balance hypothesis. Am. Nat. 140: 707-723.
47. Fant, F., Vranken, W. F. and Borremans, F. A. 1999. The threedimensional solution structure of Aesculus hippocastanum antimicrobial protein 1 determined by 1H nuclear magnetic resonance. Proteins 37: 388-403.
48. Farnsworth, N. R. and Morris, R. W. 1976. Higher plantsthe sleeping giant of drug discovery. Am. J. Pharm. 148: 46-52.
49. Feresin, G. E., Tapia, A., Sortino, M., Zacchino, S., de Arias, A. R., Inchausti, A., Yaluff, G., Rodriguez, J., Theoduloz, C. and Schmeda-Hirschmann, G. 2003. Bioactive alkyl phenols and embelin from Oxalis erythrorhiza. J. Ethnopharmacol. 88: 241-247.
50. Fraser, M. H., Cuerrier, A., Haddad, P. S., Arnason, J. T., Owen, P. L. and Johns, T. 2007. Medicinal plants of Cree communities (Quebec, Canada): antioxidant activity of plants used to treat type 2 diabetes symptoms. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 85: 1200-1214.
51. Galvá n, I. J., Mir-Rashed, N., Jessulat, M., Atanya, M., Golshani, A., Durst, T., Petit, P., Amiguet, V. T., Boekhout, T., Summerbell, R., Cruz, I., Arnason, J. T. and Smith, M. L. 2008. Antifungal and antioxidant activities of the phytomedicine pipsissewa, Chimaphila umbellata. Phytochemistry 69: 738-746.
52. Gomiero, T., Pimentel, D. and Paoletti, M. G. 2011. Is there a need for a more sustainable agriculture? Crit. Rev. Plant Sci. 30: 6-23.
53. Gottshall, R. Y. and Lucas, E. H. 1949. The occurrence of antibacterial substances active against Mycobacterium tuberculosis in seed plants. J. Clin. Invest. 28: 920-923.
54. Gupta, R. K. and Möller, H. J. 2003. St. John's wort. An option for the primary care treatment of depressive patients? Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 253: 140-148.
55. Gurevitch, J., Scheiner, S. M. and Fox, G. A. 2002. The ecology of plants. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, MA. 523 pp.
56. Güllüce, M., Adigüzel, A., Öugütçü, H., Sengül, M., Karaman, I. and Sahin, F. 2004. Antimicrobial effects of Quercus ilex L. extract. Phytother. Res. 18: 208-211.
57. Hadacek, F. and Greger, H. 2000. Testing of antifungal natural products: methodologies, comparability of results and assay choice. Phytochem. Anal. 11: 137-147.
58. Hagen, R. D. 1989. Isolation and identification of 5-hydroxyindore3-acetic acid and 5-hydroxy tryptophan, major allelopathic aglycons in quackgrass (Agropyronrepens). J. Agric. Food Chem. 37: 1143-1149.
59. Hazlett, D. L. and Sawyer, N. W. 1998. Distribution of alkaloid-rich plant species in shortgrass steppe vegetation. Conserv. Biol. 12: 1260-1268.
60. Hälvä, S. and Craker, L. E. 1996. Manual for northern herb growers. HSMP Press, Lexington, MA. 110 pp.
61. Heatherly, A. N. 1998. Healing plants: a medicinal guide to native North American plants and herbs. 1st ed. Lyons Press, Toronto, ON. 288 pp.
62. Hemmati, S., Schneider, B., Schmidt, T. J., Federolf, K., Alfermann, A. W. and Fuss, E. 2007. Justicidin B 7-hydroxylase, a cytochrome P450 monooxygenase from cell cultures of Linum perenne Himmelszelt involved in the biosynthesis of diphyllin. Phytochemistry 68: 2736-2743.
63. Hoffmann, J. J., Timmermann, B. N., McLaughlin, S. P. and Punnapayak, H. 1993. Potential antimicrobial activity of plants from the southwestern United States. Pharm. Biol. 31: 101-115.
64. Hostanska, K., Reichling, J., Bommer, S., Weber, M. and Saller, R. 2003. Hyperforin a constituent of St John's wort (Hypericum perforatum L.) extract induces apoptosis by triggering activation of caspases and with hypericin synergistically exerts cytotoxicity towards human malignant cell lines. Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm. 56: 121-132.
65. Huang, W. H., Zhang, Q. W., Meng, L. Z., Yuan, C. S., Wang, C. Z. and Li, S. P. 2011. Oplopanphesides A-C, three new phenolic glycosides from the root barks of Oplopanax horridus. Chem. Pharm. Bull. (Tokyo) 59: 676-679.
66. Hudec, J., Burdová, M., Kobida, L., Komora, L., Macho, V., Kogan, G., Turianica, I., Kochanová, R., Lozek, O., Habá n, M. and Chlebo, P. 2007. Antioxidant capacity changes and phenolic profile of Echinacea purpurea, nettle (Urtica dioica L.), and dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) after application of polyamine and phenolic biosynthesis regulators. J. Agric. Food Chem. 55: 5689-5696.
67. Ibrahim, M. A., Kainulainen, P., Aflatuni, A., Tiilikkala, K. and Holopainen, J. K. 2001. Insecticidal, repellent, antimicrobial activity and phytotoxicity of essential oils: With special reference to limonene and its suitability for control of insect pests (Review). Agric. Food Sci. Finland 10: 243-260.
68. Isaeva, E. V., Lozhkina, G. A. and Ryazanova, T. V. 2010. A study of the alcohol extract from balsam poplar buds. Russ. J. Bioorganic Chem. 36: 929-933.
69. Ishimoto, H., Fukushi, Y., Yoshida, T. and Tahara, S. 2000. Rhizopus and Fusarium are selected as dominant fungal genera in rhizospheres of Brassicaceae. J. Chem. Ecol. 26: 2387-2399.
70. Iwashina, T. and Kitajima, J. 2000. Chalcone and flavonol glycosides from Asarum canadense (Aristolochiaceae). Phytochemistry 55: 971-974.
71. Jelager, L., Gurib-Fakim, A. and Adsersen, A. 1998. Antibacterial and antifungal activity of medicinal plants of Mauritius. Pharm. Biol. 36: 153-161.
72. Jemal, A., Bray, F., Center, M. M., Ferlay, J., Ward, E. and Forman, D. 2011. Global cancer statistics. CA. Cancer J. Clin. 61: 69-90.
73. Jing-Yan, W. and Zhao-Pu, L. I. U. 2010. Alkaloid accumulation in Catharanthus roseus increases with addition of seawater salts to the nutrient solution. Pedosphere 20: 718-724.
74. Jirovský, D., Kosina, P., Myslínová, M., Stýskala, J., Ulrichová, J. and Simá nek, V. 2007. HPLC analysis of rosmarinic acid in feed enriched with aerial parts of Prunella vulgaris and its metabolites in pig plasma using dual-channel coulometric detection. J. Agric. Food. Chem. 55: 7631-7637.
75. Jones, N. P., Arnason, J. T., Abou-Zaid, M., Akpagana, K., Sanchez-Vindas, P. and Smith, M. L. 2000. Antifungal activity of extracts from medicinal plants used by First Nations Peoples of eastern Canada. J. Ethnopharmacol. 73: 191-198.
76. Jøhnk, N., Hietala, A. M., Fossdal, C. G., Collinge, D. B. and Newman, M. A. 2005. Defense-related genes expressed in Norway spruce roots after infection with the root rot pathogen Ceratobasidium bicorne (anamorph: Rhizoctonia sp.). Tree Physiol. 25: 1533-1543.
77. Kapusta, I., Janda, B., Szajwaj, B., Stochmal, A., Piacente, S., Pizza, C., Franceschi, F., Franz, C. and Oleszek, W. 2007. Flavonoids in horse chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum) seeds and powdered waste water byproducts. J. Agric. Food Chem. 55: 8485-8490.
78. Keen, R. W., Deacon, A. C., Delves, H. T., Moreton, J. A. and Frost, P. G. 1994. Indian herbal remedies for diabetes as a cause of lead poisoning. Postgrad. Med. J. 70: 113-114.
79. Kobaisy, M., Abramowski, Z., Lermer, L., Saxena, G., Hancock, R. E., Towers, G. H., Doxsee, D. and Stokes, R. W. 1997. Antimycobacterial polyynes of Devil's Club (Oplopanax horridus), a North American native medicinal plant. J. Nat. Prod. 60: 1210-1213.
80. Krishnaiah, D., Sarbatly, R. and Bono, A. 2007. Phytochemical antioxidants for health and medicine A move towards nature Biotechnol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 1: 97-104.
81. Kubota, T., Yahata, H., Yamamoto, S., Hayashi, S., Shibata, T. and Kobayashi, J. 2009. Serratezomines D and E, new Lycopodium alkaloids from Lycopodium serratum var. serratum. Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. 19: 3577-3580.
82. Kumagai, T., Müller, C. I., Desmond, J. C., Imai, Y., Heber, D. and Koeffler, H. P. 2007. Scutellaria baicalensis, a herbal medicine: anti-proliferative and apoptotic activity against acute lymphocytic leukemia, lymphoma and myeloma cell lines. Leuk. Res. 31: 523-530.
83. Kumar, P., Bhatt, R. P. and Singh, L. 2010. Identification of phytochemical content and antibacterial activity of Juniperus communis leaves. Int. J. Biotechnol. Biochem. 6: 87-91.
84. Kumari, R., Agrawal, S. B., Singh, S. and Dubey, N. K. 2009. Supplemental ultraviolet-B induced changes in essential oil composition and total phenolics of Acorus calamus L. (sweet flag). Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 72: 2013-2019.
85. Lam, K. S. 2007. New aspects of natural products in drug discovery. Trends Microbiol. 15: 279-289.
86. Large, R., Brocklesby, M. and Brocklesby, H. 1938. A hypoglycemic substance from the roots of Devil's Club (Fatsia horrida). Can. Med. Assoc. J. 39: 32-35.
87. Lee, H. Y., Mun, T. K., Lim, C. J., Kim, C. K. and Sung, T. K. 1992. Antibacterial activity of Ulmus pumila L. extract. Korean J. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 20: 1-5.
88. Li, T. S. C. 2000. Medicinal plants. Technomic Publ. Co., Lancaster, PA. 517 pp.
89. Loew, D. and Kaszkin, M. 2002. Approaching the problem of bioequivalence of herbal medicinal products. Phytother. Res. 16: 705-711.
90. Lopez, A. D. 2006. Global burden of disease and risk factors. Oxford University Press, New York, NY. 475 pp.
91. Lou, H., Yuan, H., Ma, B., Ren, D., Ji, M. and Oka, S. 2004. Polyphenols from peanut skins and their free radical-scavenging effects. Phytochemistry 65: 2391-2399.
92. Luczkiewcz, M. and Cisowski, W. 2001. Optimisation of the second phase of a two phase growth system for anthocyanin accumulation in callus cultures of Rudbeckia hirta. Plant Cell Tiss. Org. Cult. 65: 57-68.
93. Luczkiewicz, M., Zá rate, R., Dembinska-Migas, W., Migas, P. and Verpoorte, R. 2002. Production of pulchelin E in hairy roots, callus and suspension cultures of Rudbeckia hirta L. Plant Sci. 163: 91-100.
94. MacKinnon, A. 2009. Edible and medicinal plants of Canada. Lone Pine Publishing, Edmonton, AB. 448 pp.
95. Mathes, M. C. 1963. Antimicrobial substances from aspen tissue grown in vitro. Science 140: 1101-1102.
96. Matovic, M., Mihajlov, M., Comic, L. and Curcic, S. 1996. Antimicrobe activity of certain plant species with a special emphasis on the effects of biochemical products of juniper (Juniperus communis L.) on micro-organisms. Zbornik radova 45: 11-15.
97. Mattes, B. R., Clausen, T. P. and Reichardt, P. B. 1987. Volatile constituents of balsam poplar: the phenol glycoside connection. Phytochemistry 26: 1361-1366.
98. McCutcheon, A. R., Roberts, T. E., Gibbons, E., Ellis, S. M., Babiuk, L. A., Hancock, R. E. and Towers, G. H. 1995. Antiviral screening of British Columbian medicinal plants. J. Ethnopharmacol. 49: 101-110.
99. Merhi, F., Tang, R., Piedfer, M., Mathieu, J., Bombarda, I., Zaher, M., Kolb, J. P., Billard, C. and Bauvois, B. 2011. Hyperforin inhibits akt1 kinase activity and promotes caspasemediated apoptosis involving bad and noxa activation in human myeloid tumor cells. PLoS ONE 6: e25963.
100. Michalska, K. and Kisiel, W. 2003. Sesquiterpene lactones from Taraxacum obovatum. Planta Med. 69: 181-183.
101. Mishra, S., Tyagi, A., Singh, I. V. and Sangwan, R. S. 2006. Changes in lipid profile during growth and senescence of Catharanthus roseus leaf Brazilian. J. Plant Physiol. 18: 447-454.
102. Mohagheghzadeh, A., Faridi, P., Shams-Ardakani, M. and Ghasemi, Y. 2006. Medicinal smokes. J. Ethnopharmacol. 108: 161-184.
103. Moore, P. 1980. The advantages of being evergreen Nature. Trends Ecol. Evol. 285: 535-535.
104. Morita, H., Ishiuchi, K., Haganuma, A., Hoshino, T., Obara, Y. and Nakahata, N. 2005. Complanadine B, obscurumines A and B, new alkaloids from two species of Lycopodium. Tetrahedron 61: 1955-1960.
105. Mowrey, D. B. 1990. Next generation herbal medicine: guaranteed potency herbs. Keats Publ. Inc., New Canaan, CT. 157 pp.
106. Mulabagal, V. and Tsay, H. S. 2004. Plant cell culturesan alternative and efficient source for the production of biologically important secondary metabolites. Int. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. 2: 29-48.
107. Murch, S. J., Haq, K., Rupasinghe, H. P. and Saxena, P. K. 2003. Nickel contamination affects growth and secondary metabolite composition of St. John's wort (Hypericum perforatum L.). Environ. Exp. Bot. 49: 251-257.
108. Murthy, P. G., Mamtharani, D. R., Tejas, T. S and Surlikerimath, N. M. 2011. Phytochemical analysis, in vitro antibacterial and antioxidant activities of wild onions sps. Int. J. Pharm. B. Sci. 2: 230-237.
109. Müller, W. E., Rolli, M., Schäfer, C. and Hafner, U. 1997. Effects of hypericum extract (LI 160) in biochemical models of antidepressant activity. Pharmacopsychiatry 30: 102-107.
110. Nagai, T., Myoda, T. and Nagashima, T. 2005. Antioxidative activities of water extract and ethanol extract from field horsetail (tsukushi) Equisetum arvense L. Food Chem. 91: 389-394.
111. Newman, D. J. and Cragg, G. M. 2007. Natural products as sources of new drugs over the last 25 years. J. Nat. Prod. 70: 461-477.
112. Newman, D. J., Cragg, G. M. and Snader, K. M. 2003. Natural products as sources of new drugs over the period 1981-2002. J. Nat. Prod. 66: 1022-1037.
113. Nonaka, G. I., Miwa, N. and Nishioka, I. 1982. Stilbene glycoside gallates and proanthocyanidins from Polygonum multiflorum. Phytochemistry 21: 429-432.
114. Oerke, E. C., Dehne, H. W., Schonbeck, F. and Weber, A. 1994. Crop protection and crop production. 3rd ed. Amsterdam, NH. 808 pp.
115. Orhan, Ozcelik, B., Aslan, S., Kartal, M., Karaoglu, T., Sener, B., Terzioglu, S. and Choudhary, M. 2007. Antioxidant and antimicrobial actions of the clubmoss Lycopodium clavatum L. Phytochem. Rev. 6: 189-196.
116. Parajuli, P., Joshee, N., Rimando, A. M., Mittal, S. and Yadav, A. K. 2009. In vitro antitumor mechanisms of various Scutellaria extracts and constituent flavonoids. Planta Med. 75: 41-48.
117. Pareek, S. K., Gupta, V., Bhatt, K. C., Negi, K. S. and Sharma, N. 2005. Plant genetic resources: horticultural crops. Pages 279-289 in B. S. Dhillon, R. K. Tayagi, S. Saxena, and G. J. Randhawa, eds. Medicinal and aromatic plants. Narosa Publishing House Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi, India.
118. Park, J. S., Yi, G. H., Nam, M. H. and Park, S. H. 2001. Production of 8-epi-tomentosin by plant cell culture of Xanthium strumarium. Biotechnol. Bioprocess. Eng. 6: 51-55.
119. Pastirova, A., Repak, M. and Eliaova, A. 2004. Salicylic acid induces changes of coumarin metabolites in Matricaria chamomilla L. Plant Sci. 167: 819-824.
120. Post, D. M. and Urban, J. E. 1995. Antimicrobial activity of dogwood fruits (Cornus drummondii) from winter food caches of eastern woodrats (Neotoma floridana). J. Chem. Ecol. 21: 419-425.
121. Puupponen-Pimiä, R., Nohynek, L., Meier, C., Kähkönen, M., Heinonen, M., Hopia, A. and Oksman-Caldentey, K. M. 2001. Antimicrobial properties of phenolic compounds from berries. J. Appl. Microbiol. 90: 494-507.
122. Rafii, M. S., Walsh, S., Little, J. T., Behan, K., Reynolds, B., Ward, C., Jin, S., Thomas, R. and Aisen, P. S. 2011. Alzheimer's disease cooperative study. A phase II trial of huperzine A in mild to moderate Alzheimer disease. Neurology 76: 1389-1394.
123. Ralph, S. G., Yueh, H., Friedmann, M., Aeschliman, D., Zeznik, J. A., Nelson, C. C., Butterfield, Y. S., Kirkpatrick, R., Liu, J., Jones, S. J., Marra, M. A., Douglas, C. J., Ritland, K. and Bohlmann, J. 2006. Conifer defence against insects: microarray gene expression profiling of Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) induced by mechanical wounding or feeding by spruce budworms (Choristoneura occidentalis) or white pine weevils (Pissodes strobi) reveals large-scale changes of the host transcriptome. Plant Cell Environ. 29: 1545-1570.
124. Rapaport, M. H., Nierenberg, A. A., Howland, R., Dording, C., Schettler, P. J. and Mischoulon, D. 2011. The treatment of minor depression with St. John's wort or citalopram: failure to show benefit over placebo. J. Psychiatr. Res. 45: 931-941.
125. Richards, W. C. and Takai, S. 1988. Production of ceratoulmin in white elm following artificial inoculation with Ceratocystis ulmi. Physiol. Mol. Plant Pathol. 33: 279-285.
126. Romani, A., Pinelli, P., Galardi, C., Mulinacci, N. and Tattini, M. 2002. Identification and quantification of galloyl derivatives, flavonoid glycosides and anthocyanins in leaves of Pistacia lentiscus L. Phytochem. Anal. 13: 79-86.
127. Romo, J. T. 2011. Clubmoss, precipitation, and microsite effects on emergence of graminoid and forb seedlings in the semiarid Northern Mixed Prairie of North America. J. Arid. Environ. 75: 98-105.
128. Rowe, D. J. and Baker, A. C. 2009. Perioperative risks and benefits of herbal supplements in aesthetic surgery. J. Aesthet. Surg. 29: 150-157.
129. Roy, J. and Bergeron, J. M. 1990. Branch-cutting behavior by the vole (Microtus pennsylvanicus). J. Chem. Ecol. 16: 735-741.
130. Sato, Y., Suzaki, S., Nishikawa, T., Kihara, M., Shibata, H. and Higuti, T. 2000. Phytochemical flavones isolated from Scutellaria barbata and antibacterial activity against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J. Ethnopharmacol. 72: 483-488.
131. Scalbert, A. and Haslam, E. 1987. Polyphenols and chemical defence of the leaves of Quercus robur. Phytochemistry 26: 3191-3195.
132. Scheck, A. C., Perry, K., Hank, N. C. and Clark, W. D. 2006. Anticancer activity of extracts derived from the mature roots of Scutellaria baicalensis on human malignant brain tumor cells. BMC Complement Altern. Med. 6: 27.
133. Schimel, J. P., Van Cleve, K., Cates, R. G., Clausen, T. P. and Reichardt, P. B. 1996. Effects of balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera) tannins and low molecular weight phenolics on microbial activity in taiga floodplain soil: implications for changes in N cycling during succession. Can. J. Bot. 74: 84-90.
134. Shale, T. L., Stirk, W. A. and van Staden, J. 1999. Screening of medicinal plants used in Lesotho for anti-bacterial and antiinflammatory activity. J. Ethnopharmacol. 67: 347-354.
135. Shang, X., He, X., He, X., Li, M., Zhang, R., Fan, P., Zhang, Q. and Jia, Z. 2010. The genus Scutellaria an ethnopharmacological and phytochemical review. J. Ethnopharmacol. 128: 279-313.
136. Shoemaker, M., Hamilton, B., Dairkee, S. H., Cohen, I. and Campbell, M. J. 2005. In vitro anticancer activity of twelve Chinese medicinal herbs. Phytother. Res. 19: 649-651.
137. Singh, S. R. and Levine, M. A. 2007. Potential interactions between pharmaceuticals and natural health products in Canada. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 47: 249-258.
138. Small, E. and Catling, P. M. 1999. Canadian medicinal crops. 1st ed. NRC Research Press, Ottawa, ON. 240 pp.
139. Smith, L. W. and Culvenor, C. C. J. 1981. Plant sources of hepatotoxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids. J. Nat. Prod. 44: 129-152.
140. Smith, M. and Boon, H. S. 1999. Counseling cancer patients about herbal medicine. Patient Educ. Couns. 38: 109-120.
141. Sun, S., Du, G. J., Qi, L. W., Williams, S., Wang, C. Z. and Yuan, C. S. 2010. Hydrophobic constituents and their potential anticancer activities from Devil's Club (Oplopanax horridus Miq.). J. Ethnopharmacol. 132: 280-285.
142. Tai, J., Cheung, S., Cheah, S., Chan, E. and Hasman, D. 2006. In vitro anti-proliferative and antioxidant studies on Devil's Club Oplopanax horridus. J. Ethnopharmacol. 108: 228-235.
143. Tanaka, N., Nishikawa, K. and Ishimaru, K. 2003. Antioxidative capacity of extracts and constituents in Cornus capitata adventitious roots. J. Agric. Food Chem. 51: 5906-5910.
144. Thommasen, H. V., Wilson, R. A. and McIlwain, R. G. 1990. Effect of devil's club tea on blood glucose levels in diabetes mellitus. Can. Fam. Physician. 36: 62-65.
145. Varma, J. and Dubey, N. K. 1999. Prospectives of botanical and microbial products as pesticides of tomorrow. Curr. Sci (Banglore) 76: 172-178.
146. Vasinauskiene, M., Radusiene, J., Zitikaite, I. and Surviliene, E. 2006. Antibacterial activities of essential oils from aromatic and medicinal plants against growth of phytopathogenic bacteria. Agron. Res. 4: 437-440.
147. Westfall, R. E. and Glickman, B. W. 2004. Conservation of Indigenous medicinal plants in Canada. Proceedings of the Species at Risk 2004 Pathways to Recovery Conference, BC. Victoria, BC.
148. Willard, T. and McCormick, J. 1992. Edible and medicinal plants of the Rocky Mountains and neighboring territories. Wild Rose College of Natural Healing, Victoria, BC. 278 pp.
149. Wink, M. 1987. Quinolizidine alkaloids: biochemistry, metabolism, and function in plants and cell suspension cultures. Planta Med. 53: 509-514.
150. Wink, M. and Schneider, D. 1990. Fate of plant-derived secondary metabolites in three moth species (Syntomis mogadorensis, Syntomeida epilais, and Creatonotos transiens). J. Comp. Physiol. B. 160: 389-400.
151. Wittstock, U. and Gershenzon, J. 2002. Constitutive plant toxins and their role in defense against herbivores and pathogens. Curr. Opin. Plant Biol. 5: 300-307.
152. Witzell, J. W. J. and Martín, J. A. M. J. A. 2008. Phenolic metabolites in the resistance of northern forest trees to pathogens-past experiences and future prospects. Can. J. For. Res. 38: 2711-2727.
153. Woods-Panzaru, S., Nelson, D., McCollum, G., Ballard, L. M., Millar, B. C., Maeda, Y., Goldsmith, C. E., Rooney, P. J., Loughrey, A., Rao, J. R. and Moore, J. E. 2009. An examination of antibacterial and antifungal properties of constituents described in traditional Ulster cures and remedies. Ulster Med. J. 78: 13-15.
154. Wu, J., Hu, D. and Wang, K. X. 2008. Study of Scutellaria baicalensis and Baicalin against antimicrobial susceptibility of Helicobacter pylori strains in vitro. Zhong Yao Cai. 31: 707-710.
155. Yarnell, E. and Abascal, K. 2008. Antiadhesion herbs. Alternat. Complement. Ther. 14: 139-144.
156. Yazaki, K., Sasaki, K. and Tsurumaru, Y. 2009. Prenylation of aromatic compounds, a key diversification of plant secondary metabolites. Phytochemistry 70: 1739-1745.
157. Ye, F., Xui, L., Yi, J., Zhang, W. and Zhang, D. Y. 2002. Anticancer activity of Scutellaria baicalensis and its potential mechanism. J. Altern. Complement. Med. 8: 567-572.
158. Yildirim, A., Mavi, A. and Kara, A. A. 2003. Antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of Polygonum cognatum Meissn. extracts. J. Sci. Food Agric. 83: 64-69.
159. Yin, S., Fan, C. Q., Wang, X. N. and Yue, J. M. 2006. Lycodine-type alkaloids from Lycopodium casuarinoides. Helv. Chim. Acta. 89: 138-143.
160. Yin, X., Zhou, J., Jie, C., Xing, D. and Zhang, Y. 2004. Anticancer activity and mechanism of Scutellaria barbata extract on human lung cancer cell line A549. Life Sci. 75: 2233-2244.
161. Yu, J., Liu, H., Lei, J., Tan, W., Hu, X. and Zou, G. 2007. Antitumor activity of chloroform fraction of Scutellaria barbata and its active constituents. Phytother. Res. 21: 817-822.
162. Yu, C., Zhou, Y., Han, Y., Wu, F. and Qi, B. 1986. The structures of huperzine A and B; two new alkaloids exhibiting marked anticholinesteraseactivity. Can. J. Chem. 64: 837-839.