Cardiopulmonary resuscitation and management of cardiac arrest

Nature Reviews Cardiology

Volumn 9, Issue 9, 2012, Pages 499-511

  Nolan, Jerry P ^a   Soar, Jasmeet ^b   Wenzel, Volker ^c   Paal, Peter ^c  

^a ROYAL UNITED HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

^b SOUTHMEAD HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

^c UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL INNSBRUCK   (Austria)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ADRENALIN; AMIODARONE; ANTIARRHYTHMIC AGENT; ATROPINE; CALCIUM; GLUCOSE; LIDOCAINE; LIPID; METHYLPREDNISOLONE; VASOPRESSIN;

ARTIFICIAL VENTILATION; ASSISTED CIRCULATION; BLOOD CLOT LYSIS; BRAIN; BRAIN PERFUSION; CAPNOGRAPHY; CIRCULATION; CLINICAL ASSESSMENT; COMATOSE PATIENT; DEFIBRILLATION; ELECTROPHYSIOLOGY; ENDOTRACHEAL INTUBATION; GLUCOSE BLOOD LEVEL; HEART ARREST; HEART VENTRICLE FIBRILLATION; HUMAN; INDUCED HYPOTHERMIA; NONHUMAN; ORGAN PERFUSION; PERCUTANEOUS CORONARY INTERVENTION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REOXYGENATION; RESPIRATION CONTROL; RESUSCITATION; REVIEW; SEIZURE;

AIRWAY MANAGEMENT; ANTI-ARRHYTHMIA AGENTS; CARDIOPULMONARY RESUSCITATION; DEFIBRILLATORS; EPINEPHRINE; HEART ARREST; HUMANS; PROGNOSIS; SYMPATHOMIMETICS; VASOCONSTRICTOR AGENTS; VASOPRESSINS; VENTRICULAR FIBRILLATION;

EID: 84865452016     PISSN: 17595002     EISSN: 17595010     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1038/nrcardio.2012.78     Document Type: Review

References (196)

1. Nolan, J., Soar, J. & Eikeland, H. The chain of survival. Resuscitation 71, 270-271 (2006).
2. Nolan, J. P. et al. Part 1: Executive summary: 2010 international consensus on cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care science with treatment recommendations. Resuscitation 81 (Suppl. 1), e1-e25 (2010).
3. Morley, P. T. et al. Part 3: Evidence evaluation process: 2010 international consensus on cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care science with treatment recommendations. Resuscitation 81 (Suppl. 1), e32-e40 (2010).
4. Mackay, J., Mensah, G. A., Mendis, S. & Greenlund, K. The Atlas of Heart Disease and Stroke (WHO, Geneva, 2004).
5. Myerburg, R. J. & Junttila, J. Sudden cardiac death caused by coronary heart disease. Circulation 125, 1043-1052 (2012).
6. Kürciyan, I. et al. Accuracy and impact of presumed cause in patients with cardiac arrest. Circulation 98, 766-771 (1998).
7. Merchant, R. M. et al. Incidence of treated cardiac arrest in hospitalized patients in the United States. Crit. Care Med. 39, 2401-2406 (2011).
8. Meaney, P. A. et al. Rhythms and outcomes of adult in-hospital cardiac arrest. Crit. Care Med. 38, 101-108 (2010).
9. Sasson, C., Rogers, M. A., Dahl, J. & Kellermann, A. L. Predictors of survival from out-of-hospital cardiac arrest: A systematic review and meta-Analysis. Circ. Cardiovasc. Qual. Outcomes 3, 63-81 (2010).
10. Nichol, G. et al. Regional variation in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest incidence and outcome. JAMA 300, 1423-1431 (2008).
11. Hollenberg, J. et al. Improved survival after out-of-hospital cardiac arrest is associated with an increase in proportion of emergency crew-witnessed cases and bystander cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Circulation 118, 389-396 (2008).
12. Kudenchuk, P. J. et al. Impact of changes in resuscitation practice on survival and neurological outcome after out-of-hospital cardiac arrest resulting from nonshockable arrhythmias. Circulation 125, 1787-1794 (2012).
13. Kause, J. et al. A comparison of antecedents to cardiac arrests, deaths and emergency intensive care admissions in Australia and New Zealand, and the United Kingdom-The ACADEMIA study. Resuscitation 62, 275-282 (2004).
14. Smith, G. B. In-hospital cardiac arrest: Is it time for an in-hospital 'chain of prevention'? Resuscitation 81, 1209-1211 (2010).
15. Jones, D. A., DeVita, M. A. & Bellomo, R. Rapid-response teams. N. Engl. J. Med. 365, 139-146 (2011).
16. Konrad, D. et al. Reducing in-hospital cardiac arrests and hospital mortality by introducing a medical emergency team. Intensive Care Med. 36, 100-106 (2010).
17. Chan, P. S., Jain, R., Nallmothu, B. K., Berg, R. A. & Sasson, C. Rapid response teams: A systematic review and meta-Analysis. Arch. Intern. Med. 170, 18-26 (2010).
18. Muller, D., Agrawal, R. & Arntz, H. R. How sudden is sudden cardiac death? Circulation 114, 1146-1150 (2006).
19. Bradley, S. M. & Rea, T. D. Improving bystander cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Curr. Opin. Crit. Care 17, 219-224 (2011).
20. Soar, J. et al. Part 12: Education, implementation, and teams: 2010 international consensus on cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care science with treatment recommendations. Resuscitation 81 (Suppl. 1), e288-e330 (2010).
21. Lick, C. J. et al. Take Heart America: A comprehensive, community-wide, systems-based approach to the treatment of cardiac arrest. Crit. Care Med. 39, 26-33 (2011).
22. Cave, D. M. et al. Importance and implementation of training in cardiopulmonary resuscitation and automated external defibrillation in schools: A science advisory from the American Heart Association. Circulation 123, 691-706 (2011).
23. SOSKANTO Study Group. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation by bystanders with chest compression only (SOSKANTO): An observational study. Lancet 369, 920-926 (2007).
24. Waalewijn, R. A., Tijssen, J. G. & Koster, R. W. Bystander initiated actions in out-of-hospital cardiopulmonary resuscitation: Results from the Amsterdam Resuscitation Study (ARRESUST). Resuscitation 50, 273-279 (2001).
25. Van Hoeyweghen, R. J. et al. Quality and efficiency of bystander CPR. Belgian Cerebral Resuscitation Study Group. Resuscitation 26, 47-52 (1993).
26. Iwami, T. et al. Effectiveness of bystander-initiated cardiac-only resuscitation for patients with out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Circulation 116, 2900-2907 (2007).
27. Bohm, K., Rosenqvist, M., Herlitz, J., Hollenberg, J. & Svensson, L. Survival is similar after standard treatment and chest compression only in outofhospital bystander cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Circulation 116, 2908-2912 (2007).
28. Ong, M. E. et al. Comparison of chest compression only and standard cardiopulmonary resuscitation for out-of-hospital cardiac arrest in Singapore. Resuscitation 78, 119-126 (2008).
29. Olasveengen, T. M., Wik, L. & Steen, P. A. Standard basic life support vs. continuous chest compressions only in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Acta Anaesthesiol. Scand. 52, 914-919 (2008).
30. Bobrow, B. J. et al. Chest compression-only CPR by lay rescuers and survival from out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. JAMA 304, 1447-1454 (2010).
31. Hupfl, M., Selig, H. F. & Nagele, P. Chest-compression-only versus standard cardiopulmonary resuscitation: A meta-Analysis. Lancet 376, 1552-1557 (2010).
32. Ogawa, T. et al. Outcomes of chest compression only CPR versus conventional CPR conducted by lay people in patients with out of hospital cardiopulmonary arrest witnessed by bystanders: Nationwide population based observational study. BMJ 342, c7106 (2011).
33. Kitamura, T. et al. Conventional and chest-compression-only cardiopulmonary resuscitation by bystanders for children who have out-of-hospital cardiac arrests: A prospective, nationwide, population-based cohort study. Lancet 375, 1347-1354 (2010).
34. Sayre, M. R. et al. Hands-only (compression-only) cardiopulmonary resuscitation: A call to action for bystander response to adults who experience out-of-hospital sudden cardiac arrest: A science advisory for the public from the American Heart Association Emergency Cardiovascular Care Committee. Circulation 117, 2162-2167 (2008).
35. Hallstrom, A., Cobb, L., Johnson, E. & Copass, M. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation by chest compression alone or with mouth-To-mouth ventilation. N. Engl. J. Med. 342, 1546-1553 (2000).
36. Svensson, L. et al. Compression-only CPR or standard CPR in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. N. Engl. J. Med. 363, 434-442 (2010).
37. Rea, T. D. et al. CPR with chest compression alone or with rescue breathing. N. Engl. J. Med. 363, 423-433 (2010).
38. Nolan, J. P. & Soar, J. Dispatcher-Assisted bystander CPR: A KISS for a kiss. Lancet 376, 1522-1524 (2010).
39. Soar, J., Edelson, D. P. & Perkins, G. D. Delivering high-quality cardiopulmonary resuscitation in hospital. Curr. Opin. Crit. Care 17, 225-230 (2011).
40. Christenson, J. et al. Chest compression fraction determines survival in patients with out-of-hospital ventricular fibrillation. Circulation 120, 1241-1247 (2009).
41. Garza, A. G. et al. Improved patient survival using a modified resuscitation protocol for out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Circulation 119, 2597-2605 (2009).
42. Deakin, C. D. et al. European Resuscitation Council Guidelines for Resuscitation 2010 Section 4. Adult advanced life support. Resuscitation 81, 1305-1352 (2010).
43. Edelson, D. P. et al. Effects of compression depth and pre-shock pauses predict defibrillation failure during cardiac arrest. Resuscitation 71, 137-145 (2006).
44. Stiell, I. G. et al. What is the role of chest compression depth during out-of-hospital cardiac arrest resuscitation? Crit. Care Med. 40, 1192-1198 (2012).
45. Berg, R. A. et al. Part 5: Adult basic life support: 2010 American Heart Association guidelines for cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care. Circulation 122 (Suppl. 3), S685-S705 (2010).
46. Koster, R. W. et al. Part 5: Adult basic life support: 2010 international consensus on cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care science with treatment recommendations. Resuscitation 81 (Suppl. 1), e48-e70 (2010).
47. Sugerman, N. T. et al. Rescuer fatigue during actual in-hospital cardiopulmonary resuscitation with audiovisual feedback: A prospective multicenter study. Resuscitation 80, 981-984 (2009).
48. Andersen, P. O., Maaloe, R. & Andersen, H. B. Critical incidents related to cardiac arrests reported to the Danish Patient Safety Database. Resuscitation 81, 312-316 (2010).
49. Andersen, P. O., Jensen, M. K., Lippert, A. & Ostergaard, D. Identifying non-Technical skills and barriers for improvement of teamwork in cardiac arrest teams. Resuscitation 81, 695-702 (2010).
50. Edelson, D. P. et al. Improving in-hospital cardiac arrest process and outcomes with performance debriefing. Arch. Intern. Med. 168, 1063-1069 (2008).
51. Yeung, J. et al. The use of CPR feedback/prompt devices during training and CPR performance: A systematic review. Resuscitation 80, 743-751 (2009).
52. Putzer, G., Tiefenthaler, W., Mair, P. & Paal, P. Near-infrared spectroscopy during cardiopulmonary resuscitation of a hypothermic polytraumatised cardiac arrest patient. Resuscitation 83, e1-e2 (2012).
53. Parnia, S. Cerebral oximetry -The holy grail of non-invasive cerebral perfusion monitoring in cardiac arrest or just a false dawn? Resuscitation 83, 11-12 (2012).
54. Kamarainen, A. et al. Quality controlled manual chest compressions and cerebral oxygenation during in-hospital cardiac arrest. Resuscitation 83, 138-142 (2012).
55. Hostler, D. et al. Effect of real-Time feedback during cardiopulmonary resuscitation outside hospital: Prospective, cluster-randomised trial. BMJ 342, d512 (2011).
56. Merchant, R. M. et al. Cell phone cardiopulmonary resuscitation: Audio instructions when needed by lay rescuers: A randomized, controlled trial. Ann. Emerg. Med. 55, 538-543 e531 (2010).
57. Low, D. et al. A randomised control trial to determine if use of the iResus(c) application on a smart phone improves the performance of an advanced life support provider in a simulated medical emergency. Anaesthesia 66, 255-262 (2011).
58. Paal, P. et al. Mobile phone-Assisted basic life support augmented with a metronome. J. Emerg. Med. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jemermed.2011.09.011.
59. Aufderheide, T. P. et al. From laboratory science to six emergency medical services systems: New understanding of the physiology of cardiopulmonary resuscitation increases survival rates after cardiac arrest. Crit. Care Med. 36 (Suppl. 11), S397-S404 (2008).
60. Cabrini, L. et al. Impact of impedance threshold devices on cardiopulmonary resuscitation: A systematic review and meta-Analysis of randomized controlled studies. Crit. Care Med. 36, 1625-1632 (2008).
61. Aufderheide, T. P. et al. Standard cardiopulmonary resuscitation versus active compression-decompression cardiopulmonary resuscitation with augmentation of negative intrathoracic pressure for out-of-hospital cardiac arrest: A randomised trial. Lancet 377, 301-311 (2011).
62. Aufderheide, T. P. et al. A trial of an impedance threshold device in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. N. Engl. J. Med. 365, 798-806 (2011).
63. Liao, Q., Sjoberg, T., Paskevicius, A., Wohlfart, B. & Steen, S. Manual versus mechanical cardiopulmonary resuscitation. An experimental study in pigs. BMC Cardiovasc. Disord. 10, 53 (2010).
64. Vaillancourt, C., Midzic, I., Taljaard, M. & Chisamore, B. Performer fatigue and CPR quality comparing 30:2 to 15:2 compression to ventilation ratios in older bystanders: A randomized crossover trial. Resuscitation 82, 51-56 (2011).
65. Olasveengen, T. M., Wik, L. & Steen, P. A. Quality of cardiopulmonary resuscitation before and during transport in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Resuscitation 76, 185-190 (2008).
66. Chung, T. N. et al. Effect of vehicle speed on the quality of closed-chest compression during ambulance transport. Resuscitation 81, 841-847 (2010).
67. Lerner, E. B. et al. Design of the Circulation Improving Resuscitation Care (CIRC) trial: A new state of the art design for out-of-hospital cardiac arrest research. Resuscitation 82, 294-299 (2011).
68. Oberladstaetter, D. et al. Autopsy is more sensitive than computed tomography in detection of LUCASCPR related non-dislocated chest fractures. Resuscitation 83, e89-e90 (2012).
69. Brooks, S. C., Bigham, B. L. & Morrison, L. J. Mechanical versus manual chest compressions for cardiac arrest. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Issue 1. Art. No.: CD007260 http://do.doi.org/10.1002/14651858. CD007260.pub2 (2011).
70. Lerner, E. B. et al. Design of the Circulation Improving Resuscitation Care (CIRC) trial: A new state of the art design for out-of-hospital cardiac arrest research. Resuscitation 82, 294-299 (2011).
71. Wik, L. et al. Comparison of survival to hospital discharge between integrated AutoPulse-CPR and manual-CPR during out-of-hospital cardiac arrest of presumed cardiac origin: The Circulation Improving Resuscitation Care (CIRC) trial [abstract 291]. Presented at the 9th Resuscitation Science Symposium.
72. Perkins, G. D. et al. Prehospital randomised assessment of a mechanical compression device in cardiac arrest (PaRAMeDIC) trial protocol. Scand. J. Trauma Resusc. Emerg. Med. 18, 58 (2010).
73. Chen, Y. S. et al. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation with assisted extracorporeal life-support versus conventional cardiopulmonary resuscitation in adults with in-hospital cardiac arrest: An observational study and propensity analysis. Lancet 372, 554-561 (2008).
74. Thiagarajan, R. R. et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation to support cardiopulmonary resuscitation in adults. Ann. Thorac. Surg. 87, 778-785 (2009).
75. Valenzuela, T. D., Roe, D. J., Cretin, S., Spaite, D. W. & Larsen, M. P. Estimating effectiveness of cardiac arrest interventions: A logistic regression survival model. Circulation 96, 3308-3313 (1997).
76. Spearpoint, K. G., Gruber, P. C. & Brett, S. J. Impact of the Immediate Life Support course on the incidence and outcome of in-hospital cardiac arrest calls: An observational study over 6 years. Resuscitation 80, 638-643 (2009).
77. Hallstrom, A. P. et al. Public-Access defibrillation and survival after out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. N. Engl. J. Med. 351, 637-646 (2004).
78. Kitamura, T. et al. Nationwide public-Access defibrillation in Japan. N. Engl. J. Med. 362, 994-1004 (2010).
79. Chan, P. S. et al. Automated external defibrillators and survival after in-hospital cardiac arrest. JAMA 304, 2129-2136 (2010).
80. Stiell, I. G. et al. Early versus later rhythm analysis in patients with out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. N. Engl. J. Med. 365, 787-797 (2011).
81. Cheskes, S. et al. Perishock pause: An independent predictor of survival from out-of-hospital shockable cardiac arrest. Circulation 124, 58-66 (2011).
82. Edelson, D. P. et al. Safety and efficacy of defibrillator charging during ongoing chest compressions: A multi-center study. Resuscitation 81, 1521-1526 (2010).
83. Deakin, C. D., Nolan, J. P., Sunde, K. & Koster, R. W. European Resuscitation Council guidelines for resuscitation 2010 section 3. Electrical therapies: Automated external defibrillators, defibrillation, cardioversion and pacing. Resuscitation 81, 1293-1304 (2010).
84. Lloyd, M. S., Heeke, B., Walter, P. F. & Langberg, J. J. Hands-on defibrillation: An analysis of electrical current flow through rescuers in direct contact with patients during biphasic external defibrillation. Circulation 117, 2510-2514 (2008).
85. Deakin, C. D. Advances in defibrillation. Curr. Opin. Crit. Care 17, 231-235 (2011).
86. Nolan, J. P. & Soar, J. Airway techniques and ventilation strategies. Curr. Opin. Crit. Care 14, 279-286 (2008).
87. Gabrielli, A. et al. Lower esophageal sphincter pressure measurement during cardiac arrest in humans: Potential implications for ventilation of the unprotected airway. Anesthesiology 103, 897-899 (2005).
88. Oschatz, E. et al. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation performed by bystanders does not increase adverse effects as assessed by chest radiography. Anesth. Analg. 93, 128-133 (2001).
89. Studnek, J. R. et al. The association between prehospital endotracheal intubation attempts and survival to hospital discharge among out-of-hospital cardiac arrest patients. Acad. Emerg. Med. 17, 918-925 (2010).
90. Wang, H. E., Simeone, S. J., Weaver, M. D. & Callaway, C. W. Interruptions in cardiopulmonary resuscitation from paramedic endotracheal intubation. Ann. Emerg. Med. 54, 645-652.e1 (2009).
91. Lyon, R. M. et al. Field intubation of cardiac arrest patients: A dying art? Emerg. Med. J. 27, 321-323 (2010).
92. Sayre, M. R. et al. Field trial of endotracheal intubation by basic EMTs. Ann. Emerg. Med. 31, 228-233 (1998).
93. Rumball, C., Macdonald, D., Barber, P., Wong, H. & Smecher, C. Endotracheal intubation and esophageal tracheal Combitube insertion by regular ambulance attendants: A comparative trial. Prehosp. Emerg. Care 8, 15-22 (2004).
94. Pelucio, M., Halligan, L. & Dhindsa, H. Out-of-hospital experience with the syringe esophageal detector device. Acad. Emerg. Med. 4, 563-568 (1997).
95. Jones, J. H., Murphy, M. P., Dickson, R. L., Somerville, G. G. & Brizendine, E. J. Emergency physician-verified outofhospital intubation: Miss rates by paramedics. Acad. Emerg. Med. 11, 707-709 (2004).
96. Katz, S. H. & Falk, J. L. Misplaced endotracheal tubes by paramedics in an urban emergency medical services system. Ann. Emerg. Med. 37, 32-37 (2001).
97. Konrad, C., Schupfer, G., Wietlisbach, M. & Gerber, H. Learning manual skills in anesthesiology: Is there a recommended number of cases for anesthetic procedures? Anesth. Analg. 86, 635-639 (1998).
98. Gatward, J. J., Thomas, M. J., Nolan, J. P. & Cook, T. M. Effect of chest compressions on the time taken to insert airway devices in a manikin. Br. J. Anaesth. 100, 351-356 (2008).
99. Baskett, P. J. The laryngeal mask in resuscitation. Resuscitation 28, 93-95 (1994).
100. Rumball, C. J. & MacDonald, D. The PTL, Combitube, laryngeal mask, and oral airway: A randomized prehospital comparative study of ventilatory device effectiveness and cost-effectiveness in 470 cases of cardiorespiratory arrest. Prehosp. Emerg. Care 1, 1-10 (1997).
101. Tanigawa, K. & Shigematsu, A. Choice of airway devices for 12,020 cases of nontraumatic cardiac arrest in Japan. Prehosp. Emerg. Care 2, 96-100 (1998).
102. Lefrancois, D. P. & Dufour, D. G. Use of the esophageal tracheal combitube by basic emergency medical technicians. Resuscitation 52, 77-83 (2002).
103. Kette, F. et al. The use of laryngeal tube by nurses in out-of-hospital emergencies: Preliminary experience. Resuscitation 66, 21-25 (2005).
104. Asai, T., Moriyama, S., Nishita, Y. & Kawachi, S. Use of the laryngeal tube during cardiopulmonary resuscitation by paramedical staff. Anaesthesia 58, 393-394 (2003).
105. Genzwuerker, H. V., Dhonau, S. & Ellinger, K. Use of the laryngeal tube for out-of-hospital resuscitation. Resuscitation 52, 221-224 (2002).
106. Wiese, C. H. et al. The use of the laryngeal tube disposable (LTD) by paramedics during out-of-hospital resuscitation -An observational study concerning ERC guidelines 2005. Resuscitation 80, 194-198 (2009).
107. Schalk, R. et al. Out-of-hospital airway management by paramedics and emergency physicians using laryngeal tubes. Resuscitation 81, 323-326 (2010).
108. Kajino, K. et al. Comparison of supraglottic airway versus endotracheal intubation for the pre-hospital treatment of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Crit. Care 15, R236 (2011).
109. Tanigawa, K., Takeda, T., Goto, E. & Tanaka, K. The efficacy of esophageal detector devices in verifying tracheal tube placement: A randomized cross-over study of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest patients. Anesth. Analg. 92, 375-378 (2001).
110. Grmec, S. Comparison of three different methods to confirm tracheal tube placement in emergency intubation. Intensive Care Med. 28, 701-704 (2002).
111. Deakin, C. D. et al. Part 8: Advanced life support: 2010 international consensus on cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care science with treatment recommendations. Resuscitation 81 (Suppl. 1), e93-e174 (2010).
112. Takeda, T. et al. The assessment of three methods to verify tracheal tube placement in the emergency setting. Resuscitation 56, 153-157 (2003).
113. Tanigawa, K., Takeda, T., Goto, E. & Tanaka, K. Accuracy and reliability of the self-inflating bulb to verify tracheal intubation in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest patients. Anesthesiology 93, 1432-1436 (2000).
114. 2 between asphyxia cardiac arrest and ventricular fibrillation/pulseless ventricular tachycardia cardiac arrest in the prehospital setting. Crit. Care 7, R139-R144 (2003).
115. 2) at the moment of return of spontaneous circulation. J. Emerg. Med. 38, 614-621 (2010).
116. Safar, P., Brown, T. C. & Holtey, W. J. Failure of closed chest cardiac massage to produce pulmonary ventilation. Dis. Chest 41, 1-8 (1962).
117. Yannopoulos, D. et al. No assisted ventilation cardiopulmonary resuscitation and 24hour neurological outcomes in a porcine model of cardiac arrest. Crit. Care Med. 38, 254-260 (2010).
118. Hayes, M. M. et al. Continuous passive oxygen insufflation results in a similar outcome to positive pressure ventilation in a swine model of out-of-hospital ventricular fibrillation. Resuscitation 74, 357-365 (2007).
119. Bobrow, B. J. et al. Passive oxygen insufflation is superior to bag-valve-mask ventilation for witnessed ventricular fibrillation out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Ann. Emerg. Med. 54, 656-662.e1 (2009).
120. Aufderheide, T. P. et al. Hyperventilation-induced hypotension during cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Circulation 109, 1960-1965 (2004).
121. Weiser, G., Hoffmann, Y., Galbraith, R. & Shavit, I. Current advances in intraosseous infusion -A systematic review. Resuscitation 83, 20-26 (2012).
122. Manisterski, Y. et al. Endotracheal epinephrine: A call for larger doses. Anesth. Analg. 95, 1037-1041 (2002).
123. Vaknin, Z. et al. Is endotracheal adrenaline deleterious because of the beta adrenergic effect? Anesth. Analg. 92, 1408-1412 (2001).
124. Ditchey, R. V. & Lindenfeld, J. Failure of epinephrine to improve the balance between myocardial oxygen supply and demand during closed-chest resuscitation in dogs. Circulation 78, 382-389 (1988).
125. Olasveengen, T. M. et al. Intravenous drug administration during out-of-hospital cardiac arrest: A randomized trial. JAMA 302, 2222-2229 (2009).
126. Jacobs, I. G., Finn, J. C., Jelinek, G. A., Oxer, H. F. & Thompson, P. L. Effect of adrenaline on survival in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest: A randomised double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Resuscitation 82, 1138-1143 (2011).
127. Hagihara, A. et al. Prehospital epinephrine use and survival among patients with out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. JAMA 307, 1161-1168 (2012).
128. Lindner, K. H. et al. Stress hormone response during and after cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Anesthesiology 77, 662-668 (1992).
129. Wenzel, V. et al. The use of arginine vasopressin during cardiopulmonary resuscitation. An analysis of experimental and clinical experience and a view of the future [German]. Anaesthesist 51, 191-202 (2002).
130. Stiell, I. G. et al. Vasopressin versus epinephrine for inhospital cardiac arrest: A randomised controlled trial. Lancet 358, 105-109 (2001).
131. Wenzel, V. et al. A comparison of vasopressin and epinephrine for out-of-hospital cardiopulmonary resuscitation. N. Engl. J. Med. 350, 105-113 (2004).
132. Gueugniaud, P. Y. et al. Vasopressin and epinephrine vs. epinephrine alone in cardiopulmonary resuscitation. N. Engl. J. Med. 359, 21-30 (2008).
133. Mentzelopoulos, S. D. et al. Vasopressin, epinephrine, and corticosteroids for in-hospital cardiac arrest. Arch. Intern. Med. 169, 15-24 (2009).
134. Kudenchuk, P. J. et al. Amiodarone for resuscitation after out-of-hospital cardiac arrest due to ventricular fibrillation. N. Engl. J. Med. 341, 871-878 (1999).
135. Dorian, P. et al. Amiodarone as compared with lidocaine for shock-resistant ventricular fibrillation. N. Engl. J. Med. 346, 884-890 (2002).
136. Stiell, I. G. et al. Advanced cardiac life support in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. N. Engl. J. Med. 351, 647-656 (2004).
137. Schwartz, A. C. Neurological recovery after cardiac arrest: Clinical feasibility trial of calcium blockers. Am. J. Emerg. Med. 3, 1-10 (1985).
138. ACMT position statement: Interim guidance for the use of lipid resuscitation therapy. J. Med. Toxicol. 7, 81-82 (2011).
139. Weinberg, G. L. Limits to lipid in the literature and lab: What we know, what we don't know. Anesth. Analg. 108, 1062-1064 (2009).
140. Fischer, M., Bottiger, B. W., Popov-Cenic, S. & Hossmann, K. A. Thrombolysis using plasminogen activator and heparin reduces cerebral no-reflow after resuscitation from cardiac arrest: An experimental study in the cat. Intensive Care Med. 22, 1214-1223 (1996).
141. Bottiger, B. W. et al. Efficacy and safety of thrombolytic therapy after initially unsuccessful cardiopulmonary resuscitation: A prospective clinical trial. Lancet 357, 1583-1585 (2001).
142. Bottiger, B. W. et al. Thrombolysis during resuscitation for out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. N. Engl. J. Med. 359, 2651-2662 (2008).
143. Nolan, J. P. et al. Outcome following admission to UK intensive care units after cardiac arrest: A secondary analysis of the ICNARC Case Mix Programme Database. Anaesthesia 62, 1207-1216 (2007).
144. Tomte, O. et al. Strong and weak aspects of an established post-resuscitation treatment protocol -A five-year observational study. Resuscitation 82, 1186-1193 (2011).
145. Gaieski, D. F. et al. Early goal-directed hemodynamic optimization combined with therapeutic hypothermia in comatose survivors of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Resuscitation 80, 418-424 (2009).
146. Elliott, V. J., Rodgers, D. L. & Brett, S. J. Systematic review of quality of life and other patient-centred outcomes after cardiac arrest survival. Resuscitation 82, 247-256 (2011).
147. Nolan, J. P. et al. Post-cardiac arrest syndrome: Epidemiology, pathophysiology, treatment, and prognostication. A scientific statement from the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation; the American Heart Association Emergency Cardiovascular Care Committee; the Council on Cardiovascular Surgery and Anesthesia; the Council on Cardiopulmonary, Perioperative, and Critical Care; the Council on Clinical Cardiology; the Council on Stroke. Resuscitation 79, 350-379 (2008).
148. Neumar, R. W. Optimal oxygenation during and after cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Curr. Opin. Crit. Care 17, 236-240 (2011).
149. Bossaert, L. et al. Part 9: Acute coronary syndromes: 2010 international consensus on cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care science with treatment recommendations. Resuscitation 81 (Suppl. 1), e175-e212 (2010).
150. Dumas, F. et al. Immediate percutaneous coronary intervention is associated with better survival after outofhospital cardiac arrest: Insights from the PROCAT (Parisian Region Out of hospital Cardiac ArresT) registry. Circ. Cardiovasc. Interv. 3, 200-207 (2010).
151. Radsel, P., Knafelj, R., Kocjancic, S. & Noc, M. Angiographic characteristics of coronary disease and postresuscitation electrocardiograms in patients with aborted cardiac arrest outside a hospital. Am. J. Cardiol. 108, 634-638 (2011).
152. Zia, A. & Kern, K. B. Management of postcardiac arrest myocardial dysfunction. Curr. Opin. Crit. Care 17, 241-246 (2011).
153. Laurent, I. et al. Reversible myocardial dysfunction in survivors of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 40, 2110-2116 (2002).
154. Gonzalez, M. M. et al. Left ventricular systolic function and outcome after in-hospital cardiac arrest. Circulation 117, 1864-1872 (2008).
155. Adrie, C. et al. Postresuscitation disease after cardiac arrest: A sepsis-like syndrome? Curr. Opin. Crit. Care 10, 208-212 (2004).
156. Hovdenes, J., Laake, J. H., Aaberge, L., Haugaa, H. & Bugge, J. F. Therapeutic hypothermia after out-of-hospital cardiac arrest: Experiences with patients treated with percutaneous coronary intervention and cardiogenic shock. Acta Anaesthesiol. Scand. 51, 137-142 (2007).
157. Tømte, O. et al. Strong and weak aspects of an established post-resuscitation treatment protocol -A five-year observational study. Resuscitation 82, 1186-1193 (2011).
158. Laver, S., Farrow, C., Turner, D. & Nolan, J. Mode of death after admission to an intensive care unit following cardiac arrest. Intensive Care Med. 30, 2126-2128 (2004).
159. Zeiner, A. et al. Hyperthermia after cardiac arrest is associated with an unfavorable neurologic outcome. Arch. Intern. Med. 161, 2007-2012 (2001).
160. Walters, J. H., Morley, P. T. & Nolan, J. P. The role of hypothermia in post-cardiac arrest patients with return of spontaneous circulation: A systematic review. Resuscitation 82, 508-516 (2011).
161. Wood, S. C. Interactions between hypoxia and hypothermia. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 53, 71-85 (1991).
162. The Hypothermia after Cardiac Arrest Study Group. Mild therapeutic hypothermia to improve the neurologic outcome after cardiac arrest. N. Engl. J. Med. 346, 549-556 (2002).
163. Bernard, S. A. et al. Treatment of comatose survivors of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest with induced hypothermia. N. Engl. J. Med. 346, 557-563 (2002).
164. Nolan, J. P., Morley, P. T., Vanden Hoek, T. L. & Hickey, R. W. Therapeutic hypothermia after cardiac arrest. An advisory statement by the Advancement Life Support Task Force of the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation. Resuscitation 57, 231-235 (2003).
165. Testori, C. et al. Mild therapeutic hypothermia is associated with favourable outcome in patients after cardiac arrest with non-shockable rhythms. Resuscitation 82, 1162-1167 (2011).
166. Kim, Y. M., Yim, H. W., Jeong, S. H., Klem, M. L. & Callaway, C. W. Does therapeutic hypothermia benefit adult cardiac arrest patients presenting with non-shockable initial rhythms? A systematic review and meta-Analysis of randomized and non-randomized studies. Resuscitation 83, 188-196 (2012).
167. Nolan, J. P. & Soar, J. Does the evidence support the use of mild hypothermia after cardiac arrest? Yes. BMJ 343, d5830 (2011).
168. Bernard, S. A. et al. Induction of prehospital therapeutic hypothermia after resuscitation from nonventricular fibrillation cardiac arrest Crit. Care Med. 40, 747-753 (2012).
169. Soar, J., Foster, J. & Breitkreutz, R. Fluid infusion during CPR and after ROSC -is it safe? Resuscitation 80, 1221-1222 (2009).
170. Lyon, R. M. et al. Esophageal temperature after out-of-hospital cardiac arrest: An observational study. Resuscitation 81, 867-871 (2010).
171. Benz-Woerner, J. et al. Body temperature regulation and outcome after cardiac arrest and therapeutic hypothermia. Resuscitation 83, 338-342 (2012).
172. Holzer, M. Targeted temperature management for comatose survivors of cardiac arrest. N. Engl. J. Med. 363, 1256-1264 (2010).
173. Merchant, R. M. et al. Therapeutic hypothermia after cardiac arrest: Unintentional overcooling is common using ice packs and conventional cooling blankets. Crit. Care Med. 34 (Suppl. 12), S490-S494 (2006).
174. Larsson, I. M., Wallin, E. & Rubertsson, S. Cold saline infusion and ice packs alone are effective in inducing and maintaining therapeutic hypothermia after cardiac arrest. Resuscitation 81, 15-19 (2010).
175. Sun, S. et al. Pharmacologically induced hypothermia with cannabinoid receptor agonist WIN55, 2122 after cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Crit. Care Med. 38, 2282-2286 (2010).
176. Weng, Y. et al. Cholecystokinin octapeptide induces hypothermia and improves outcomes in a rat model of cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Crit. Care Med. 39, 2407-2412 (2011).
177. Nagao, K. et al. Early induction of hypothermia during cardiac arrest improves neurological outcomes in patients with out-of-hospital cardiac arrest who undergo emergency cardiopulmonary bypass and percutaneous coronary intervention. Circ. J. 74, 77-85 (2010).
178. Polderman, K. H. & Herold, I. Therapeutic hypothermia and controlled normothermia in the intensive care unit: Practical considerations, side effects, and cooling methods. Crit. Care Med. 37, 1101-1120 (2009).
179. Tortorici, M. A., Kochanek, P. M. & Poloyac, S. M. Effects of hypothermia on drug disposition, metabolism, and response: A focus of hypothermia-mediated alterations on the cytochrome P450 enzyme system. Crit. Care Med. 35, 2196-2204 (2007).
180. Oddo, M. & Rossetti, A. O. Predicting neurological outcome after cardiac arrest. Curr. Opin. Crit. Care 17, 254-259 (2011).
181. Nielsen, N. et al. Adverse events and their relation to mortality in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest patients treated with therapeutic hypothermia. Crit. Care Med. 39, 57-64 (2011).
182. Dijk, J. M. & Tijssen, M. A. J. Management of patients with myoclonus: Available therapies and the need for an evidence-based approach Lancet Neurol. 9, 1028-1036 (2010).
183. Wijdicks, E. F. Propofol in myoclonus status epilepticus in comatose patients following cardiac resuscitation. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 73, 94-95 (2002).
184. Young, G. B. Clinical practice. Neurologic prognosis after cardiac arrest. N. Engl. J. Med. 361, 605-611 (2009).
185. Wijdicks, E. F., Hijdra, A., Young, G. B., Bassetti, C. L. & Wiebe, S. Practice parameter: Prediction of outcome in comatose survivors after cardiopulmonary resuscitation (an evidence-based review): Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology 67, 203-210 (2006).
186. Samaniego, E. A., Mlynash, M., Caulfield, A. F., Eyngorn, I. & Wijman, C. A. Sedation confounds outcome prediction in cardiac arrest survivors treated with hypothermia. Neurocrit. Care 15, 113-119 (2011).
187. Bisschops, L. L., van Alfen, N., Bons, S., van der Hoeven, J. G. & Hoedemaekers, C. W. Predictors of poor neurologic outcome in patients after cardiac arrest treated with hypothermia: A retrospective study. Resuscitation 82, 696-701 (2011).
188. Bouwes, A. et al. Prognosis of coma after therapeutic hypothermia: A prospective cohort study. Ann. Neurol. 71, 206-212 (2012).
189. Rossetti, A. O., Oddo, M., Logroscino, G. & Kaplan, P. W. Prognostication after cardiac arrest and hypothermia: A prospective study. Ann. Neurol. 67, 301-307 (2010).
190. Steffen, I. G. et al. Mild therapeutic hypothermia alters neuron specific enolase as an outcome predictor after resuscitation: 97 prospective hypothermia patients compared to 133 historical non-hypothermia patients. Crit. Care 14, R69 (2010).
191. Adrie, C. et al. An underrecognized source of organ donors: Patients with brain death after successfully resuscitated cardiac arrest. Intens. Care Med. 34, 132-137 (2008).
192. Sandroni, C. et al. Are patients brain-dead after successful resuscitation from cardiac arrest suitable as organ donors? A systematic review. Resuscitation 81, 1609-1614 (2010).
193. Soar, J. & Packham, S. Cardiac arrest centres make sense. Resuscitation 81, 507-508 (2010).
194. Kern, K. B. Good news for those resuscitated from out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Resuscitation 82, 1126-1127 (2011).
195. Nolan, J. P. & Soar, J. Post resuscitation care -Time for a care bundle? Resuscitation 76, 161-162 (2008).
196. Nichol, G. et al. Regional systems of care for out-of-hospital cardiac arrest: A policy statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation 121, 709-729 (2010).