Pediatric coronary allograft vasculopathy-a review of pathogenesis and risk Factors

Congenital Heart Disease

Volumn 7, Issue 4, 2012, Pages 312-323

  Schumacher, Kurt R ^a   Gajarski, Robert J ^a   Urschel, Simon ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF ALBERTA   (Canada)

Author keywords

Coronary Vasculopathy; Heart Transplant; Polymorphisms

Indexed keywords

CALCINEURIN INHIBITOR; CELL ADHESION MOLECULE; CHOLESTEROL; INTERCELLULAR ADHESION MOLECULE 1; MAMMALIAN TARGET OF RAPAMYCIN INHIBITOR; STEROID;

AGE DISTRIBUTION; ALLOIMMUNITY; ANTIBODY RESPONSE; ANTIGEN EXPRESSION; ARTICLE; ATHEROSCLEROTIC CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; BLOOD CLOTTING; CARDIAC ALLOGRAFT VASCULOPATHY; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CHOLESTEROL BLOOD LEVEL; CHRONIC GRAFT REJECTION; CLINICAL FEATURE; COMPLEMENT ACTIVATION; CYTOMEGALOVIRUS INFECTION; DIABETES MELLITUS; ENDOCARDITIS; EPSTEIN BARR VIRUS INFECTION; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION; GRAFT FAILURE; GRAFT RECIPIENT; HEART SURGERY; HEART TRANSPLANTATION; HEREDITY; HERPES ZOSTER; HUMAN; HYPERCHOLESTEROLEMIA; HYPERHOMOCYSTEINEMIA; HYPERLIPIDEMIA; HYPERTENSION; IMMUNE RESPONSE; IMMUNE SYSTEM; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE TREATMENT; INFECTION; ISCHEMIC HEART DISEASE; MACROPHAGE; METABOLISM; NONHUMAN; PARVOVIRUS INFECTION; PATHOGENESIS; PREOPERATIVE EVALUATION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REOPERATION; REPERFUSION INJURY; SHEAR STRESS; THROMBOCYTE ACTIVATION; VIRUS MYOCARDITIS;

CHILD; CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION TO DISEASE; HEART TRANSPLANTATION; HUMANS; REPERFUSION INJURY; RISK FACTORS;

EID: 84864311476     PISSN: 1747079X     EISSN: 17470803     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1747-0803.2011.00601.x     Document Type: Article

References (118)

1. Pahl E, Fricker FJ, Armitage J, etal. Coronary arteriosclerosis in pediatric heart transplant survivors: limitation of long-term survival. J Pediatr. 1990;116:177-183.
2. Hathout E, Beeson WL, Kuhn M, etal. Cardiac allograft vasculopathy in pediatric heart transplant recipients. Transpl Int. 2006;19:184-189.
3. Colvin-Adams M, Agnihotri A. Cardiac allograft vasculopathy: current knowledge and future direction. Clin Transplant. 2011;25:175-184.
4. Billingham ME. Histopathology of graft coronary disease. J Heart Lung Transplant. 1992;11(3 pt 2):S38-S44.
5. Tuzcu EM, De Franco AC, Goormastic M, etal. Dichotomous pattern of coronary atherosclerosis 1 to 9 years after transplantation: insights from systematic intravascular ultrasound imaging. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1996;27(4):839-846.
6. Kirk R, Edwards LB, Kucheryavaya AY, etal. The Registry of the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation: thirteenth official pediatric heart transplantation report-2010. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2010;29:1119-1128.
7. Pahl ECA, Kuhn MA, eds. Allograft Vasculopathy: Detection, Risk Factors, Natural History, and Treatment. New York: Elsevier Mosby; 2007.
8. Nagji AS, Hranjec T, Swenson BR, etal. Donor age is associated with chronic allograft vasculopathy after adult heart transplantation: implications for donor allocation. Ann Thorac Surg. 2010;90:168-175.
9. Wilhelm MJ, Pratschke J, Beato F, etal. Activation of proinflammatory mediators in heart transplants from brain-dead donors: evidence from a model of chronic rat cardiac allograft rejection. Transplant Proc. 2002;34(6):2359-2360.
10. Herijgers P, Leunens V, Tjandra-Maga TB, Mubagwa K, Flameng W. Changes in organ perfusion after brain death in the rat and its relation to circulating catecholamines. Transplantation. 1996;62:330-335.
11. Atkinson C, Varela JC, Tomlinson S. Complement-dependent inflammation and injury in a murine model of brain dead donor hearts. Circ Res. 2009;105:1094-1101.
12. Szabo G, Buhmann V, Bahrle S, Vahl CF, Hagl S. Brain death impairs coronary endothelial function. Transplantation. 2002;73:1846-1848.
13. Stoica SC, Atkinson C, Satchithananda DK, etal. Endothelial activation in the transplanted human heart from organ retrieval to 3 months after transplantation: an observational study. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2005;24:593-601.
14. Valantine HA. Cardiac allograft vasculopathy: central role of endothelial injury leading to transplant "atheroma." Transplantation. 2003;76:891-899.
15. Currie M, Zaki AM, Nejat S, Hirsch GM, Lee TD. Immunologic targets in the etiology of allograft vasculopathy: endothelium versus media. Transpl Immunol. 2008;19:120-126.
16. King CL, Devitt JJ, Lee TD, Hancock Friesen CL. Neutrophil mediated smooth muscle cell loss precedes allograft vasculopathy. J Cardiothorac Surg. 2010;5:52.
17. Day JD, Rayburn BK, Gaudin PB, etal. Cardiac allograft vasculopathy: the central pathogenetic role of ischemia-induced endothelial cell injury. J Heart Lung Transplant. 1995;14(6 pt 2):S142-S149.
18. Vessie EL, Hirsch GM, Lee TD. Aortic allograft vasculopathy is mediated by CD8(+) T cells in Cyclosporin A immunosuppressed mice. Transpl Immunol. 2005;15(1):35-44.
19. Wehner JR, Fox-Talbot K, Halushka MK, Ellis C, Zachary AA, Baldwin WM 3rd. B cells and plasma cells in coronaries of chronically rejected cardiac transplants. Transplantation. 2010;89:1141-1148.
20. Cunningham KS, Gotlieb AI. The role of shear stress in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. Lab Invest. 2005;85(1):9-23.
21. Takumi T, Yang EH, Mathew V, etal. Coronary endothelial dysfunction is associated with a reduction in coronary artery compliance and an increase in wall shear stress. Heart. 2010;96:773-778.
22. Sun N, Wood NB, Hughes AD, Thom SA, Yun Xu X. Effects of transmural pressure and wall shear stress on LDL accumulation in the arterial wall: a numerical study using a multilayered model. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2007;292(6):H3148-H3157.
23. Urschel S, Altamirano-Diaz LA, West LJ. Immunosuppression armamentarium in 2010: mechanistic and clinical considerations. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2010;57(2):433-457. Table of contents.
24. Addonizio LJ, Hsu DT, Douglas JF, etal. Decreasing incidence of coronary disease in pediatric cardiac transplant recipients using increased immunosuppression. Circulation. 1993;88(5 pt 2):II224-II229.
25. Eisen HJ, Kobashigawa J, Keogh A, etal. Three-year results of a randomized, double-blind, controlled trial of mycophenolate mofetil versus azathioprine in cardiac transplant recipients. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2005;24:517-525.
26. Eisen HJ, Tuzcu EM, Dorent R, etal. Everolimus for the prevention of allograft rejection and vasculopathy in cardiac-transplant recipients. N Engl J Med. 2003;349:847-858.
27. Mancini D, Pinney S, Burkhoff D, etal. Use of rapamycin slows progression of cardiac transplantation vasculopathy. Circulation. 2003;108:48-53.
28. Nwakanma LU, Williams JA, Weiss ES, Russell SD, Baumgartner WA, Conte JV. Influence of pretransplant panel-reactive antibody on outcomes in 8160 heart transplant recipients in recent era. Ann Thorac Surg. 2007;84(5):1556-1562, discussion 62-63.
29. Girnita AL, Webber SA, Zeevi A. Anti-HLA alloantibodies in pediatric solid organ transplantation. Pediatr Transplant. 2006;10:146-153.
30. Di Filippo S, Girnita A, Webber SA, etal. Impact of ELISA-detected anti-HLA antibodies on pediatric cardiac allograft outcome. Hum Immunol. 2005;66:513-518.
31. Feingold B, Bowman P, Zeevi A, etal. Survival in allosensitized children after listing for cardiac transplantation. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2007;26:565-571.
32. Irving C, Hasan A, Carter V, Gennery A, Parry G, Kirk R. Association between donor-specific HLA antibodies and adverse outcome following paediatric cardiac transplantation. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2009;28(2):S232.
33. Rossano JW, Morales DL, Denfield SW, etal. Impact of panel-reactive antibodies on long-term outcome in pediatric heart transplant patients: an analysis of the united network of organ sharing database. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2009;28(2):S232.
34. Urschel S, Campbell PM, Meyer SR, etal. Absence of donor-specific anti-HLA antibodies after ABO-incompatible heart transplantation in infancy: altered immunity or age? Am J Transplant. 2010;10:149-156.
35. Kuhn MA, Jutzy KR, Deming DD, etal. The medium-term findings in coronary arteries by intravascular ultrasound in infants and children after heart transplantation. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2000;36(1):250-254.
36. Ameduri R, Zheng J, Schechtman K, etal. Abstract 13877: has late rejection decreased in pediatric heart transplantation in the current era? A multi-institutional study. Circulation. 2010;122(25 suppl):A13877.
37. Pahl E, Naftel DC, Kuhn MA, etal. The impact and outcome of transplant coronary artery disease in a pediatric population: a 9-year multi-institutional study. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2005;24:645-651.
38. Mulla NF, Johnston JK, Vander Dussen L, etal. Late rejection is a predictor of transplant coronary artery disease in children. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001;37(1):243-250.
39. Mahle WT, Vincent RN, Berg AM, Kanter KR. Pravastatin therapy is associated with reduction in coronary allograft vasculopathy in pediatric heart transplantation. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2005;24:63-66.
40. Nicolas RT, Kort HW, Balzer DT, etal. Surveillance for transplant coronary artery disease in infant, child and adolescent heart transplant recipients: an intravascular ultrasound study. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2006;25:921-927.
41. Zhang Q, Liang LW, Gjertson DW, etal. Development of posttransplant antidonor HLA antibodies is associated with acute humoral rejection and early graft dysfunction. Transplantation. 2005;79:591-598.
42. Holweg CT, Weimar W, Uitterlinden AG, Baan CC. Clinical impact of cytokine gene polymorphisms in heart and lung transplantation. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2004;23:1017-1026.
43. Imhof BA, Dunon D. Leukocyte migration and adhesion. Adv Immunol. 1995;58:345-416.
44. Borozdenkova S, Smith J, Marshall S, Yacoub M, Rose M. Identification of ICAM-1 polymorphism that is associated with protection from transplant associated vasculopathy after cardiac transplantation. Hum Immunol. 2001;62:247-255.
45. Neumann FJ, Ott I, Gawaz M, etal. Cardiac release of cytokines and inflammatory responses in acute myocardial infarction. Circulation. 1995;92:748-755.
46. Kharazmi A, Nielsen H, Rechnitzer C, Bendtzen K. Interleukin 6 primes human neutrophil and monocyte oxidative burst response. Immunol Lett. 1989;21:177-184.
47. Lou H, Kodama T, Wang YN, Katz N, Ramwell P, Foegh ML. L-arginine prevents heart transplant arteriosclerosis by modulating the vascular cell proliferative response to insulin-like growth factor-I and interleukin-6. J Heart Lung Transplant. 1996;15:1248-1257.
48. Ganter U, Arcone R, Toniatti C, Morrone G, Ciliberto G. Dual control of C-reactive protein gene expression by interleukin-1 and interleukin-6. EMBO J. 1989;8(12):3773-3779.
49. Ali MH, Schlidt SA, Chandel NS, Hynes KL, Schumacker PT, Gewertz BL. Endothelial permeability and IL-6 production during hypoxia: role of ROS in signal transduction. Am J Physiol. 1999;277(5 pt 1):L1057-L1065.
50. Fishman D, Faulds G, Jeffery R, etal. The effect of novel polymorphisms in the interleukin-6 (IL-6) gene on IL-6 transcription and plasma IL-6 levels, and an association with systemic-onset juvenile chronic arthritis. J Clin Invest. 1998;102:1369-1376.
51. Densem CG, Ray M, Hutchinson IV, Yonan N, Brooks NH. Interleukin-6 polymorphism: a genetic risk factor for cardiac transplant related coronary vasculopathy? J Heart Lung Transplant. 2005;24:559-565.
52. Holweg CT, Baan CC, Balk AH, etal. The transforming growth factor-beta1 codon 10 gene polymorphism and accelerated graft vascular disease after clinical heart transplantation. Transplantation. 2001;71:1463-1467.
53. Lawrence DA. Transforming growth factor-beta: a general review. Eur Cytokine Netw. 1996;7:363-374.
54. Densem CG, Hutchinson IV, Yonan N, Brooks NH. Donor and recipient-transforming growth factor-beta 1 polymorphism and cardiac transplant-related coronary artery disease. Transpl Immunol. 2004;13:211-217.
55. Densem CG, Hutchinson IV, Yonan N, Brooks NH. Influence of tumor necrosis factor-alpha gene-308 polymorphism on the development of coronary vasculopathy after cardiac transplantation. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2001;20:1265-1273.
56. Wang P, Ba ZF, Chaudry IH. Administration of tumor necrosis factor-alpha in vivo depresses endothelium-dependent relaxation. Am J Physiol. 1994;266(6 pt 2):H2535-H2541.
57. Andreassen AK, Nordoy I, Simonsen S, etal. Levels of circulating adhesion molecules in congestive heart failure and after heart transplantation. Am J Cardiol. 1998;81:604-608.
58. Ternstrom L, Jeppsson A, Ricksten A, Nilsson F. Tumor necrosis factor gene polymorphism and cardiac allograft vasculopathy. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2005;24:433-438.
59. Benza RL, Passineau MJ, Anderson PG, Barchue JP, George JF. The role of fibrinolytic genes and proteins in the development of allograft vascular disease. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2011;30:935-944.
60. Benza RL, Grenett HE, Bourge RC, etal. Gene polymorphisms for plasminogen activator inhibitor-1/tissue plasminogen activator and development of allograft coronary artery disease. Circulation. 1998;98:2248-2254.
61. Degen SJ, Rajput B, Reich E. The human tissue plasminogen activator gene. J Biol Chem. 1986;261 (15):6972-6985.
62. Dawson S, Hamsten A, Wiman B, Henney A, Humphries S. Genetic variation at the plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 locus is associated with altered levels of plasma plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 activity. Arterioscler Thromb. 1991;11:183-190.
63. Lemstrom KB, Nykanen AI, Tikkanen JM, etal. Role of angiogenic growth factors in transplant coronary artery disease. Ann Med. 2004;36:184-193.
64. Tambur AR, Pamboukian S, Costanzo MR, Heroux A. Genetic polymorphism in platelet-derived growth factor and vascular endothelial growth factor are significantly associated with cardiac allograft vasculopathy. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2006;25:690-698.
65. Shahbazi M, Fryer AA, Pravica V, etal. Vascular endothelial growth factor gene polymorphisms are associated with acute renal allograft rejection. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2002;13(1):260-264.
66. Nykanen AI, Krebs R, Tikkanen JM, etal. Combined vascular endothelial growth factor and platelet-derived growth factor inhibition in rat cardiac allografts: beneficial effects on inflammation and smooth muscle cell proliferation. Transplantation. 2005;79:182-189.
67. Yousufuddin M, Yamani MH. The renin-angiotensin hypothesis for the pathogenesis of cardiac allograft vasculopathy. Int J Cardiol. 2004;95(2-3):123-127.
68. Erinc K, Yamani MH, Starling RC, etal. The effect of combined Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition and calcium antagonism on allograft coronary vasculopathy validated by intravascular ultrasound. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2005;24:1033-1038.
69. Richter MH, Richter HR, Olbrich HG, Mohr FW. Two good reasons for an angiotensin-II type 1 receptor blockade with losartan after cardiac transplantation: reduction of incidence and severity of transplant vasculopathy. Transpl Int. 2003;16(1):26-32.
70. Tiret L, Rigat B, Visvikis S, etal. Evidence, from combined segregation and linkage analysis, that a variant of the angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE) gene controls plasma ACE levels. Am J Hum Genet. 1992;51:197-205.
71. Arbustini E, Grasso M, Fasani R, etal. Angiotensin converting enzyme gene deletion allele is independently and strongly associated with coronary atherosclerosis and myocardial infarction. Br Heart J. 1995;74:584-591.
72. Cambien F, Poirier O, Lecerf L, etal. Deletion polymorphism in the gene for angiotensin-converting enzyme is a potent risk factor for myocardial infarction. Nature. 1992;359(6396):641-644.
73. Pethig K, Heublein B, Hoffmann A, Borlak J, Wahlers T, Haverich A. ACE-gene polymorphism is associated with the development of allograft vascular disease in heart transplant recipients. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2000;19:1175-1182.
74. Cunningham DA, Crisp SJ, Barbir M, Lazem F, Dunn MJ, Yacoub MH. Donor ACE gene polymorphism: a genetic risk factor for accelerated coronary sclerosis following cardiac transplantation. Eur Heart J. 1998;19:319-325.
75. Kobashigawa JA, Katznelson S, Laks H, etal. Effect of pravastatin on outcomes after cardiac transplantation. N Engl J Med. 1995;333:621-627.
76. Seipelt IM, Crawford SE, Rodgers S, etal. Hypercholesterolemia is common after pediatric heart transplantation: initial experience with pravastatin. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2004;23:317-322.
77. Singh TP, Naftel DC, Webber S, etal. Hyperlipidemia in children after heart transplantation. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2006;25:1199-1205.
78. Escobar A, Ventura HO, Stapleton DD, etal. Cardiac allograft vasculopathy assessed by intravascular ultrasonography and nonimmunologic risk factors. Am J Cardiol. 1994;74:1042-1046.
79. Stampfer MJ, Sacks FM, Salvini S, Willett WC, Hennekens CH. A prospective study of cholesterol, apolipoproteins, and the risk of myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med. 1991;325:373-381.
80. Hedman M, Pahlman R, Sundvall J, etal. Low HDL-C predicts the onset of transplant vasculopathy in pediatric cardiac recipients on pravastatin therapy. Pediatr Transplant. 2007;11:481-490.
81. Malinow MR. Hyperhomocyst(e)inemia. A common and easily reversible risk factor for occlusive atherosclerosis. Circulation. 1990;81(6):2004-2006.
82. Genest JJ Jr, McNamara JR, Salem DN, Wilson PW, Schaefer EJ, Malinow MR. Plasma homocyst(e)ine levels in men with premature coronary artery disease. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1990;16(5):1114-1119.
83. Mayer EL, Jacobsen DW, Robinson K. Homocysteine and coronary atherosclerosis. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1996;27:517-527.
84. Cook RC, Tupper JK, Parker S, etal. Effect of immunosuppressive therapy, serum creatinine, and time after transplant on plasma total homocysteine in patients following heart transplantation. J Heart Lung Transplant. 1999;18:420-424.
85. Parisi F, Kost-Byerly S, Saponara I, Di Donato R, Di Liso G. Elevated plasma homocysteine concentrations after pediatric heart transplantations. Transpl Int. 2000;13(suppl 1):S235-S239.
86. Kutschka I, Pethig K, Harringer W, Haverich A, Struber M. Increased plasma homocysteine concentrations accelerate cardiac allograft vasculopathy. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2004;23:1260-1265.
87. Miner SE, Cole DE, Evrovski J, Verma A, Daly PA, Ross HJ. Hyperhomocysteinemia and transplant coronary artery disease in cardiac transplant recipients. Clin Transplant. 2001;15:258-262.
88. Welch GN, Loscalzo J. Homocysteine and atherothrombosis. N Engl J Med. 1998;338:1042-1050.
89. Tawakol A, Omland T, Gerhard M, Wu JT, Creager MA. Hyperhomocyst(e)inemia is associated with impaired endothelium-dependent vasodilation in humans. Circulation. 1997;95(5):1119-1121.
90. Parisi F, Danesi H, Di Ciommo V, etal. Treatment of hyperhomocysteinemia in pediatric heart transplant recipients. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2003;22:778-783.
91. Potena L, Grigioni F, Magnani G, etal. Homocysteine-lowering therapy and early progression of transplant vasculopathy: a prospective, randomized, IVUS-based study. Am J Transplant. 2005;5(9):2258-2264.
92. Potena L, Grigioni F, Masetti M, etal. Long-term effect of folic acid therapy in heart transplant recipients: follow-up analysis of a randomized study. Transplantation. 2008;85:1146-1150.
93. Chen R, Xiong S, Yang Y, Fu W, Wang Y, Ge J. The relationship between human cytomegalovirus infection and atherosclerosis development. Mol Cell Biochem. 2003;249(1-2):91-96.
94. Grattan MT, Moreno-Cabral CE, Starnes VA, Oyer PE, Stinson EB, Shumway NE. Cytomegalovirus infection is associated with cardiac allograft rejection and atherosclerosis. JAMA. 1989;261:3561-3566.
95. Sambiase NV, Higuchi ML, Nuovo G, etal. CMV and transplant-related coronary atherosclerosis: an immunohistochemical, in situ hybridization, and polymerase chain reaction in situ study. Mod Pathol. 2000;13:173-179.
96. Valantine HA. Role of CMV in transplant coronary artery disease and survival after heart transplantation. Transpl Infect Dis. 1999;1(suppl 1):25-30.
97. Fateh-Moghadam S, Bocksch W, Wessely R, Jager G, Hetzer R, Gawaz M. Cytomegalovirus infection status predicts progression of heart-transplant vasculopathy. Transplantation. 2003;76:1470-1474.
98. Hussain T, Burch M, Fenton MJ, etal. Positive pretransplantation cytomegalovirus serology is a risk factor for cardiac allograft vasculopathy in children. Circulation. 2007;115:1798-1805.
99. Simmonds J, Fenton M, Dewar C, etal. Endothelial dysfunction and cytomegalovirus replication in pediatric heart transplantation. Circulation. 2008;117:2657-2661.
100. Mahle WT, Fourshee MT, Naftel DM, etal. Does cytomegalovirus serology impact outcome after pediatric heart transplantation? J Heart Lung Transplant. 2009;28:1299-1305.
101. Shirali GS, Ni J, Chinnock RE, etal. Association of viral genome with graft loss in children after cardiac transplantation. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:1498-1503.
102. Bowles NE, Shirali GS, Chinnock RE, Rosenthal GL, Towbin JA. Association of viral genome with transplant coronary arteriopathy and graft loss in children following cardiac transplantation. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2001;20:198.
103. Moulik M, Breinholt JP, Dreyer WJ, etal. Viral endomyocardial infection is an independent predictor and potentially treatable risk factor for graft loss and coronary vasculopathy in pediatric cardiac transplant recipients. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2010;56:582-592.
104. Graham JA, Wilkinson RA, Hirohashi T, etal. Viral infection induces de novo lesions of coronary allograft vasculopathy through a natural killer cell-dependent pathway. Am J Transplant. 2009;9(11):2479-2484.
105. Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR, etal. The Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure: the JNC 7 report. JAMA. 2003;289:2560-2572.
106. Lewington S, Clarke R, Qizilbash N, Peto R, Collins R. Age-specific relevance of usual blood pressure to vascular mortality: a meta-analysis of individual data for one million adults in 61 prospective studies. Lancet. 2002;360(9349):1903-1913.
107. Radovancevic B, Poindexter S, Birovljev S, etal. Risk factors for development of accelerated coronary artery disease in cardiac transplant recipients. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 1990;4:309-312, discussion 13.
108. Schroeder JS, Gao SZ, Alderman EL, etal. A preliminary study of diltiazem in the prevention of coronary artery disease in heart-transplant recipients. N Engl J Med. 1993;328:164-170.
109. O'Neill BJ, Pflugfelder PW, Singh NR, Menkis AH, McKenzie FN, Kostuk WJ. Frequency of angiographic detection and quantitative assessment of coronary arterial disease one and three years after cardiac transplantation. Am J Cardiol. 1989;63:1221-1226.
110. Shaddy RE, Naftel DC, Kirklin JK, etal. Outcome of cardiac transplantation in children. Survival in a contemporary multi-institutional experience. Pediatric Heart Transplant Study. Circulation. 1996;94(9 suppl):II69-II73.
111. Kuhn CC, Chinnock RE, Deming DD, Razzouk AJ, Bailey LL. The presence of cardiac allograft vasculopathy in infant and pediatric heart transplant recipients: a 10-year intravascular ultrasound study. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2009;28(2S1):S124.
112. Urschel S, Ryan LA, Jeyakanthan M, Larsen IM, West LJ. Impact of B-Cell memory on development of donor-specific tolerance in ABO-incompatible heart transplantation in early childhood. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2010;29:100.
113. Rijkers GT, Sanders EAM, Breukels MA, Zegers BJM. Infant B-cell response to polysaccharide determinants. Vaccine. 1998;16:1396-1400.
114. West LJ, Pollock-Barziv SM, Dipchand AI, etal. ABO-incompatible heart transplantation in infants. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:793-800.
115. Dipchand AI, Pollock BarZiv SM, Manlhiot C, West LJ, VanderVliet M, McCrindle BW. Equivalent outcomes for pediatric heart transplantation recipients: ABO-blood group incompatible versus ABO-compatible. Am J Transplant. 2010;10:389-397.
116. Ogle BM, West LJ, Driscoll DJ, etal. Effacing of the T cell compartment by cardiac transplantation in infancy. J Immunol. 2006;176(3):1962-1967.
117. Madhok AB, Chandrasekran A, Parnell V, Gandhi M, Chowdhury D, Pahwa S. Levels of recent thymic emigrant cells decrease in children undergoing partial thymectomy during cardiac surgery. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol. 2005;12:563-565.
118. Chin C, Naftel D, Pahl E, etal. Cardiac re-transplantation in pediatrics: a multi-institutional study. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2006;25:1420-1424.