The moderating role of social ties on entrepreneurs' depressed affect and withdrawal intentions in response to economic stress

Journal of Organizational Behavior

Volumn 33, Issue 6, 2012, Pages 789-810

  Pollack, Jeffrey M ^a   Vanepps, Eric M ^b   Hayes, Andrew F ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF RICHMOND   (United States)

^b CARNEGIE MELLON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Depressed affect; Economic stress; Entrepreneur; Entrepreneurial withdrawal intentions; Psychology; Social ties

Indexed keywords

EID: 84864130314     PISSN: 08943796     EISSN: 10991379     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/job.1794     Document Type: Article

References (122)

1. Ahmad, S. Z., & Salim, F. A. A. (2009). Sources of stress and the coping mechanism for Malaysian entrepreneurs. Journal of Asia Entrepreneurship and Sustainability, 5, 52-63.
2. Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
3. Aldrich, H., & Zimmer, C. (1986). Entrepreneurship through social networks. In D. Sexton, & R. Smilor (Eds.), The art and science of entrepreneurship (pp. 3-23). Cambridge, MA: Ballinger Publishing.
4. Anderson, M. H. (2008). Social networks and the cognitive motivation to realize network opportunities: A study of managers' information gathering behaviors. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 29(1), 51-78.
5. Baron, R. A. (2000). Psychological perspectives on entrepreneurship: Cognitive and social factors in entrepreneurs' success. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9, 15-18.
6. Baron, R. A. (2008). The role of affect in the entrepreneurial process. Academy of Management Review, 33(2), 328-340.
7. Baron, R. A. (2010). Job design and entrepreneurship: Why closer connection=mutual gains. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 31, 370-378.
8. Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173-1182.
9. Baron, R. A., & Markman, G. D. (2003). Beyond social capital: The role of entrepreneurs' social competence in their financial success. Journal of Business Venturing, 18, 41-60.
10. Baron, R. A., & Tang, J. (2009). Entrepreneurs' social skills and new venture performance: Mediating mechanisms and cultural generality. Journal of Management, 35, 282-306.
11. Barrera, M. (1986). Distinctions between social support concepts, measures, and models. American Journal of Community Psychology, 14, 413-445.
12. Bauer, D. J., & Curran, P. J. (2005). Probing interactions in fixed and multilevel regression: Inferential and graphical techniques. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 40, 373-400.
13. Baum, A., Fleming, R., & Reddy, D. M. (1986). Unemployment stress: Loss of control, reactance and learned helplessness. Social Science & Medicine, 5, 509-516.
14. Bergkvist, L., & Rossiter, J. R. (2007). The predictive validity of multiple-item versus single-item measures of the same constructs. Journal of Marketing Research, 44, 175-184.
15. Berkman, L. F., & Syme, L. (1979). Social networks, host resistance, and mortality: A nine-year follow-up study of Alameda County residents. American Journal of Epidemiology, 109, 106-204.
16. Blau, G. (1998). On the aggregation of individual withdrawal behaviors in larger multi-item constructs. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 19, 437-451.
17. Bollen, K. (1989). Structural equations with latent variables. New York, NY: Wiley.
18. Bowler, W. M., Droege, S. B., & Anderson, J. R. (2003). Social network ties and strategic renewal: Promotion of strategic initiatives by middle-level actors. Journal of Behavioral and Applied Management, 5, 31-44.
19. Brass D. J., & Burkhardt, M. E. (1993). Centrality and power in organizations. In N. Nohria, & R. G. Eccles (Eds.), Networks and organizations (pp. 191-215). Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
20. Brennan, S., & McHugh, M. (1993). Research note-Coping with recession: The impact upon the entrepreneur. International Small Business Journal, 12, 70-75.
21. Briner, R. B., & Reynolds, S. (1999). The costs, benefits, and limitations of organizational level stress interventions. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 20, 647-664.
22. Brown, S. P., Westbrook, R. A., & Challagalla, G. (2005). Good cope, bad cope: Adaptive and maladaptive coping strategies following a critical negative work event. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 792-798.
23. Brüderl, J., & Preisendörfer, P. (1998). Network support and the success of newly founded businesses. Small Business Economics, 10, 213-225.
24. Bullock, J. G., Green, D. P., & Ha, S. E. (2010). Yes, but what is the mechanism? (Don't expect an easy answer). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98, 550-558.
25. Buttner, E. H. (1992). Entrepreneurial stress: Is it hazardous to your health? Journal of Managerial Issues, 4(2), 223-240.
26. Cerin, E., & MacKinnon, D. P. (2009). A commentary on current practice in mediating variable analyses in behavioural nutrition and physical activity. Public Health Nutrition, 12, 1182-1188.
27. Chay, Y. W. (1993). Social support, individual differences and well-being: A study of small business entrepreneurs and employees. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 66, 285-302.
28. Chen, C. C., Greene, P. G., & Crick, A. (1998). Does entrepreneurial self-efficacy distinguish entrepreneurs from managers? Journal of Business Venturing, 13, 295-316.
29. Cohen, S., & Wills, T. A. (1985). Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin, 98, 310-357.
30. Collins, C. J., & Clark, K. D. (2003). Strategic human resource practices, top management team social networks, and firm performance: The role of human resource practices in creating organizational competitive advantage. Academy of Management Journal, 46, 740-751.
31. De Janasz, S. C., & Forret, M. L. (2007). Learning the art of networking: A critical skill for enhancing social capital and career success. Journal of Management Education, 32, 629-650.
32. Dekker, S. W. A., & Schaufeli, W. B. (1995). The effects of job insecurity on psychological health and withdrawal: A longitudinal study. Australian Psychologist, 30, 57-63.
33. Drolet, A. L., & Morrison, D. G. (2001). Do we really need multiple-item measures in service research? Journal of Service Research, 3, 196-204.
34. Dubini, P., & Aldrich, H. (1991). Personal and extended networks are central to the entrepreneurial process. Journal of Business Venturing, 6(5), 305.
35. Duchesneau, D. A., & Gartner, W. B. (1990). A profile of new venture success and failure in an emerging industry. Journal of Business Venturing, 5(5), 297-312.
36. Dweck, C. S. (1975). The role of expectations and attributions in the alleviation of learned helplessness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31, 674-685.
37. Edwards, J. R., & Lambert, L. S. (2007). Methods for integrating moderation and mediation: A general analytical framework using moderated path analysis. Psychological Methods, 12, 1-22.
38. Egan, V., & Tosanguan, P. (2009). Coping strategies of entrepreneurs in economic recession: A comparative analysis of Thais and European expatriates in Pattaya, Thailand. Journal of Asia Entrepreneurship and Sustainability, 5, 17-36.
39. Eng, P. M., Rimm, E. B., Fitzmaurice, G., & Kawachi, I. (2002). Social ties and change in social ties in relation to subsequent total and cause-specific mortality and coronary heart disease incidence in men. American Journal of Epidemiology, 155, 700-709.
40. Etzion, D. (1984). Moderating effect of social support on the stress-burnout relationship. Journal of Applied Psychology, 69, 625-622.
41. Fielden, S. L., & Hunt, C. M. (2011). Online coaching: An alternative source of social support for female entrepreneurs during venture creation. International Small Business Journal, 29, 345-359.
42. Foo, M. D., Uy, M. A., & Baron, R. A. (2009). How do feelings influence effort? An empirical study of entrepreneurs' affect and venture effort. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94(4), 1086-1094.
43. Frydenberg, E., & Lewis, R. (2009). Relations among well-being, avoidant coping, and active coping in a large sample of Australian adolescents. Psychological Reports, 104, 745-758.
44. Ganster, D. C., & Schaubroeck, J. (1991). Work stress and employee health. Journal of Management, 17, 235-271.
45. Ganster, D. C., Fusilier, M. R., & Mayes, B. T. (1986). Role of social support in the experience of stress at work. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71, 102-110.
46. Gilboa, S., Shirom, A., Fried, Y., & Cooper, C. (2008). A meta-analysis of work demand stressors and job performance: Examining main and moderating effects. Personnel Psychology, 61, 227-271.
47. Gilmore, A., & Carson, D. (1999). Entrepreneurial marketing by networking. New England Journal of Entrepreneurship, 22, 31-38.
48. Gotlib, I. H., & Meyer, J. P. (1986). Factor analysis of the Multiple Affect Adjective Check List: A separation of positive and negative affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 1161-1165.
49. Granovetter, M. (1973). The strength of weak ties. The American Journal of Sociology, 78(6), 1360-1380.
50. Granovetter, M. S. (1974). Getting a job: A study of contacts and careers. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
51. Grossman, E., Yli-Renko, H., & Janakiraman, R. (2007). Homophily and resource-seeking behavior in new venture network formation. Frontiers of Entrepreneurship Research, 27, 1-14.
52. Harris, J. A., Saltstone, R., & Fraboni, M. (1999). An evaluation of the job stress questionnaire with a sample of entrepreneurs. Journal of Business and Psychology, 13(3), 447-455.
53. Haslam, S. A., O'Brien, A., Jetten, J., Vormedal, K., & Penna, S. (2005). Taking the strain: Social identity, social support, and the experience of stress. British Journal of Social Psychology, 44, 355-370.
54. Hayes, A. F. (2009). Beyond Baron and Kenny: Statistical mediation analysis in the new millennium. Communication Monographs, 76, 408-420.
55. Hayes, A. F., & Matthes, J. (2009). Computational procedures for probing interactions in OLS and logistic regression: SPSS and SAS implementations. Behavior Research Methods, 41, 924-936.
56. Hellgren, J., & Sverke, M. (2003). Does job insecurity lead to impaired well-being or vice versa? Estimation of cross-lagged effects using latent variable modeling. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 24, 215-236.
57. Hiroto, D. S., & Seligman, M. E. P. (1975). Generality of learned helplessness in man. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31, 311-327.
58. Hoyt, C. L. (2005). The role of leadership efficacy and stereotype activation in women's identification with leadership. Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies, 11, 2-14.
59. Hoyt, C. L., & Blascovich, J. (2007). Leadership efficacy and women leaders' responses to stereotype activation. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 10, 595-616.
60. Hustedde, R. J., & Pulver, G. C. (1992). Factors affecting equity capital acquisition: The demand side. Journal of Business Venturing, 7(5), 363-374.
61. Iacobucci, D. (1996). Introduction (pp. vii-xx). Networks in marketing. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
62. Irwin, J. R., & McClelland, G. H. (2002). Negative consequences of dichotomizing continuous predictor variables. Journal of Marketing Research, 40, 366-371.
63. Johns, G. (2010). Some unintended consequences of job design. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 31, 361-369.
64. Katz, D., & Kahn, R. L. (1966). The social psychology of organizations (1st ed.). New York, NY: Wiley.
65. Kawachi, I., & Berkman, L. F. (2001). Social ties and mental health. Journal of Urban Health, 78, 458-467.
66. Keaveney, S. M., & Nelson, J. E. (1993). Coping with organizational role stress: Intrinsic motivational orientation, perceived role benefits, and psychological withdrawal. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 21, 113-124.
67. Kilduff, M., & Brass, D. J. (2010a). Organizational social network research: Core ideas and key debates. The Academy of Management Annals, 4, 317-357.
68. Kilduff, M., & Brass, D. J. (2010b). Job design: A social network perspective. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 31, 309-318.
69. Klein, K. J., Lim, B. C., Saltz, J. L., & Mayer, D. M. (2004). How do they get there? An examination of the antecedents of centrality in team networks. Academy of Management Journal, 47, 952-963.
70. Kolvereid, L., Shane, S., & Westhead, P. (1993). Is it equally difficult for female entrepreneurs to start businesses in all countries? Journal of Small Business Management, 31, 42-51.
71. Krackhardt, D. (1987). Cognitive social structures. Social Networks, 9, 109-134.
72. Krackhardt, D. (1996). Social networks and the liability of newness for managers. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 3, 159-173.
73. Latham, S. (2009). Contrasting strategic response to economic recession in start-up versus established software firms. Journal of Small Business Management, 47, 180-201.
74. Lazarus, R. S. (1993). From psychological stress to the emotions: A history of changing outlooks. Annual Review of Psychology, 44, 1-21.
75. Lee, N. H. (1969). The search for an abortionist. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
76. Lee, R. T., & Ashforth, B. E. (1993). A further examination of managerial burnout: Toward an integrated model. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 14, 3-20.
77. LePine, J. A., Podsakoff, N. A., & LePine, M. A. (2005). A meta-analytic test of the challenge stressor-hindrance stressor framework: An explanation for inconsistent relationships among stressors and performance. Academy of Management Journal, 48, 764-775.
78. Lerner, M., Brush, C., & Hisrich, R. (1997). Israeli women entrepreneurs: An examination of factors affecting performance. Journal of Business Venturing, 12(4), 315-339.
79. Lubin, B., Zuckerman, M., & Woodward, L. (1985). Bibliography for the Multiple Affect Adjective Check List. San Diego, CA: Educational and Industrial Testing Service.
80. Luria, G., & Torjman, A. (2009). Resources and coping with stressful events. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 30, 685-707.
81. MacCallum, R. C., Zhang, S., Preacher, K. J., & Rucker, D. D. (2002). On the practice of dichotomization of quantitative variables. Psychological Methods, 7, 19-40.
82. MacKinnon, D. P., & Fairchild, A. J., & Fritz, M. S. (2007). Mediation analysis. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 593-614.
83. MacKinnon, D. P., Lockwood, C. M., Hoffman, J. M., West, S. G., & Sheets, V. (2002). A comparison of methods to test mediation and other intervening variable effects. Psychological Methods, 7, 83-104.
84. Markman, G. D., Baron, R. A., & Balkin, D. B. (2005). Are perseverance and self-efficacy costless? Assessing entrepreneurs' regretful thinking. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26, 1-9.
85. Mathieu, J. E., DeShon, R. P., & Bergh, D. D. (2008). Mediational inferences in organizational research. Organizational Research Methods, 11, 203-223.
86. Morgan-Lopez, A., & MacKinnon, D. P. (2006). Demonstration and evaluation of a method for assessing mediated moderation. Behavior Research Methods, 38, 77-89.
87. Muller, D., Judd, C. M., & Yzerbyt, V. Y. (2005). When mediation is moderated and moderation is mediated. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 852-863.
88. O'Donnell, A. (2004). The nature of networking in small firms. Qualitative Market Research, 73, 206-217.
89. Ozgen, E., & Baron, R. A. (2007). Social sources of information in opportunity recognition: Effects of mentors, industry networks, and professional forums. Journal of Business Venturing, 22, 174-192.
90. Parrott, G., Roomi, M. A., & Holliman, D. (2010). An analysis of programmes adopted by regional small and medium-sized enterprises. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 17, 184-203.
91. Patzelt, H., & Shepherd, D. A. (2011). Regulating the negative emotions of an entrepreneurial career: Self-employment and regulatory coping. Journal of Business Venturing, 2, 226-238.
92. Podsakoff, N. P., LePine, J. A., & LePine, M. A. (2007). Differential challenge stressor-hindrance stressor relationships with job attitudes, turnover intentions, turnover, and withdrawal behavior: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 438-454.
93. Pollack, J. M., Burnette, J. L., & Hoyt, C. L. (forthcoming). Self-efficacy in the face of threats to entrepreneurial success: Mindsets matter. Basic and Applied Social Psychology.
94. Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2004). SPSS and SAS procedures for estimating indirect effects in simple mediation models. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 36, 717-731.
95. Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40, 879-891.
96. Preacher, K. J., Rucker, D. D., & Hayes, A. F. (2007). Assessing moderated mediation hypotheses: Theory, methods, and prescriptions. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 42, 185-227.
97. Pryce, C. R., Azzinnari, D., Spinelli, S., Seifritz, E., Tegethoff, M., & Meinlschmidt, G. (2011). Helplessness: A systematic translational review of theory and evidence for its relevance to understanding and treating depression. Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 132, 242-267.
98. Richardson, K. M., & Rothstein, H. R. (2008). Effects of occupational stress management intervention programs: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 13, 69-93.
99. Royston, P., Altman, D. G., & Sauerbrei, W. (2006). Dichotomizing continuous predictors in multiple regression: A bad idea. Statistics in Medicine, 25, 127-141.
100. Rucker, D. D., Preacher, K. J., Tormala, Z. L., & Petty, R. E. (2011). Mediation analysis in social psychology: Current practices and new recommendations. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 5/6, 359-371.
101. Seeman, T. E., & Berkman, L. F. (1988). Structure characteristics of social networks and their relationship with social support in the elderly: Who provides support. Social Science & Medicine, 26, 737-749.
102. Seers, A. S., McGee, G. W., Serey, T. T., & Graen, G. B. (1983). The interaction of job stress and social support: A strong inference investigation. Academy of Management Journal, 26, 273-284.
103. Seligman, M. E. P. (1972). Learned helplessness. Annual Review of Medicine, 23, 407-412.
104. Seligman, M. E. P., & Maier, S. F. (1967). Failure to escape traumatic shock. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 74, 1-9.
105. Sequeira, J., Mueller, S. L., & McGee, J. E. (2007). The influence of social ties and self-efficacy in forming entrepreneurial intentions and motivating nascent behavior. Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship, 12, 275-293.
106. Shepherd, D. A. (2003). Learning from business failure: Propositions of grief recovery for the self-employed. Academy of Management Review, 28, 318-328.
107. Shepherd, D. A. (2009). Grief recovery from the loss of a family business: A multi- and meso-level theory. Journal of Business Venturing, 24, 81-97.
108. Singh, R. P. (2000). Opportunity recognition through social network characteristics of entrepreneurs. New York, NY: Routledge Press.
109. Sobel, M. E. (1982). Asymptotic confidence intervals for indirect effects in structural models. In S. Leinhardt (Ed.), Sociological methodology (pp. 290-312). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
110. Soh, P. (2003). The role of networking alliances in information acquisition and its implications for new product performance. Journal of Business Venturing, 18(6), 727-744.
111. Stone-Romero, E. F., & Rosopa, P. J. (2010). Research design options for testing mediation models and their implications for facets of validity. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 25, 697-712.
112. Tang, C., Au, W., Schwarzer, R., & Schmitz, G. (2001). Mental health outcomes of job stress among Chinese teachers: Role of stress resource factors and burnout. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 22, 887-901.
113. Thoits, P. A. (1995). Stress, coping, and social support processes: Where are we? What next? Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 35, 53-79.
114. Thompson, J. (2010). 'Entrepreneurship enablers'-Their unsung and unquantified role in competitiveness and regeneration. Local Economy, 25, 58-73.
115. Uchino, B. N., Cacioppo, J. T., & Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K. (1996). The relationship between social support and physiological processes: A review with emphasis on underlying mechanisms and implications for health. Psychological Bulletin, 119, 488-531.
116. Vasumathi, A., Govindarajalu, S., Anuratha, E. K., & Amudha, R. (2003). Stress and coping styles of entrepreneurs. Journal of Management Research, 3, 43-51.
117. Wanous, J. P., Reichers, A. E., & Hudy, M. J. (1997). Overall job satisfaction: How good are single item measures? Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, 247-252.
118. Watson, J. (2007). Modeling the relationship between networking and firm performance. Journal of Business Venturing, 22, 852-874.
119. Wincent, J., & Örtqvist, D. (2009a). Role stress and entrepreneurship research. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 5, 1-22.
120. Wincent, J., & Örtqvist, D. (2009b). A comprehensive model of entrepreneurial role stress antecedents and consequences. Journal of Business and Psychology, 24, 225-243.
121. Witt, P. (2004). Entrepreneurs' networks and the success of start-ups. Entrepreneurship and Regional Development, 16(5), 391-412.
122. Zimmer, C., & Aldrich, H. (1987). Resource mobilization through ethnic networks: Kinship and friendship ties of shopkeepers in England. Sociological Perspectives, 30(4), 422-455.