Still Bay and Howiesons Poort Foraging Strategies: Recent Research and Models of Culture Change

African Archaeological Review

Volumn 29, Issue 1, 2012, Pages 7-50

  McCall, Grant S ^a   Thomas, Jonathan T ^b  

^a TULANE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b The University of Iowa   (United States)

Author keywords

Behavioral ecology; Howiesons Poort; Middle Stone Age; Organization of technology; Still Bay

Indexed keywords

EID: 84863404527     PISSN: 02630338     EISSN: 15729842     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s10437-012-9107-y     Document Type: Article

References (216)

1. Ambrose, S. H. (1998). Late Pleistocene human population bottlenecks, volcanic winter, and differentiation of modern humans. Journal of Human Evolution, 34, 623-651.
2. Ambrose, S. H., (2002). Early microlithic industries in sub-Saharan Africa. In R. G Elston S. L. Kuhn (Eds.), Thinking Small: Global Perspectives on Microlithization (pp. 9-29). Arlington: Archeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association, Number 12.
3. Ambrose, S. H. (2006). Howiesons Poort lithic raw material procurement patterns and the evolution of modern human behavior: A response to Minichillo (2006). Journal of Human Evolution, 50, 365-369.
4. Ambrose, S. H., & Lorenz, K. G. (1990). Social and ecological models for the Middle Stone Age in southern Africa. In P. Mellars (Ed.), The Emergence of Modern Humans (pp. 3-33). Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
5. Andrefsky, W. (1998). Lithics: Macroscopic approaches to analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
6. Arnold, K., (1991). Experimental archaeology and the denticulate Mousterian, vol. 2. London: Papers of the Institute of Archaeology pp. 2-7, University College.
7. Assefa, Z., Lam, Y. M., & Mienis, H. K. (2008). Symbolic use of terrestrial gastropod Opercula during the Middle Stone Age at Porc-Epic Cave, Ethiopia. Current Anthropology, 49, 746-756.
8. Avery, D. M. (1987). Late Pleistocene coastal environment of the southern Cape Province of South Africa: Micromammals from Klasies River mouth. Journal of Archaeological Science, 14, 405-421.
9. Avery, D. M. (1992). The environment of early modern humans at Border Cave, South Africa: Micromammalian evidence. Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology, 91, 71-87.
10. Avery, D. M. (1999). A re-appraisal of micromammalian data from South Africa. Quaternary International, 57/58, 175-183.
11. Backwell, L., d'Errico, F., & Wadley, L. (2008). Middle Stone Age bone tools from the Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave, South Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science, 35, 1566-1580.
12. Bamford, M. K., & Henderson, Z. L. (2003). A reassessment of the wooden fragment from Florisbad, South Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science, 30, 637-650.
13. Bamforth, D. B. (2003). Rethinking the role of bifacial technology in Paleoindian adaptations on the Great Plains. In M. Soressi & H. L. Dibble (Eds.), Multiple approaches to bifacial technologies (pp. 209-228). Philadelphia: The University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology.
14. Bamforth, D. B. (2009). Projectile points, people, and plains Paleoindian perambulations. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, 28, 142-157.
15. Bamforth, D. B., & Becker, M. (2000). Core/biface ratios, mobility, refitting, and artifact use-lives: A Paleoindian example. Plains Anthropologist, 45, 273-90.
16. Bar-Matthews, M., Marean, C. W., Jacobs, Z., Karkanas, P., Fisher, E. C., Herries, A. I. R., Brown, K., Williams, H. M., Bernatchez, J., Ayalon, A., & Nilssen, P. J. (2010). A high resolution and continuous isotopic speleothem record of paleoclimate and paleoenvironment from 90 to 53 ka from Pinnacle Point on the south coast of South Africa. Quaternary Science Reviews, 29, 2131-2145.
17. Bartram, L. E. (1997). A comparison of Kua (Botswana) and Hadza (Tanzania) bow and arrow hunting. In H. Knecht (Ed.), Projectile Technology (pp. 321-344). New York: Plenum Press.
18. Bartram, L. E., & Marean, C. W. (1999). Explaining the "Klasies Pattern": Kua ethnoarchaeology, the Die Kelders Middle Stone Age archaeofauna, long bone fragmentation and carnivore ravaging. Journal of Archaeological Science, 26, 9-29.
19. Bar-Yosef, O. (2002). The Upper Paleolithic Revolution. Annual Review of Anthropology, 31, 363-393.
20. Beaumont, P. (1973). Border Cave: A progress report. South African Journal of Science, 69, 41-46.
21. Behar, D. M., Villems, R., Soodyall, H., Blue-Smith, J., Pereira, L., Metspalu, E., Scozzari, R., Makkan, H., Tzur, S., & Comas, D. (2008). The dawn of human matrilineal diversity. American Journal of Human Genetics, 82, 1130-1140.
22. Binford, L. R. (1968). Post-Pleistocene adaptations. In L. R. Binford & S. R. Binford (Eds.), New Perpsectives in Archaeology (pp. 313-341). Chicago: Aldine.
23. Binford, L. R. (1984). Faunal remains from Klasies River Mouth. New York: Academic.
24. Binford, L. R. (1986). An Alyawara day: Making men's knives and beyond. American Antiquity, 51, 547-562.
25. Binford, L. R. (2001). Constructing frames of reference: An analytical aethod for archaeological theory building using ethnographic and environmental data sets. Berkeley: University of California Press.
26. Binford, L. R., & O'Connell, J. (1984). An Alyawara day: The stone quarry. Journal of Anthropological Research, 40, 406-432.
27. Binneman, J. N. F. (1994). A unique stone tipped arrowhead from Adam's Kranz Cave, Eastern Cape. Southern African Field Archaeology, 3, 58-60.
28. Bleed, P. (1986). The optimal design of hunting weapons. American Antiquity, 51, 737-747.
29. Bleed, P. (2002). Cheap, regular and reliable: Implications of design variation in late Pleistocene Japanese microblade technology. In R. G. Elston and S. L. Kuhn (Eds.), Thinking small: Global perspectives on microlithization (pp. 95-102). Arlington: Archaeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association 12.
30. Bousman, C. B. (2005). Coping with risk: Later Stone Age technological strategies at Blydefontein Rock Shelter, South Africa. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, 24, 193-226.
31. Brooks, A. S., Nevell, L., Yellen, J. E., & Hartman, G. (2006). Projectile technologies of the African Middle Stone Age: Implications for modern human origins. In E. Hovers & S. L. Kuhn (Eds.), Transitions before the transition: Evolution and stability in the Middle Palaeolithic and Middle Stone Age (pp. 233-255). New York: Springer.
32. Brown, E. T. (2011). Lake Malawi's response to "megadrought" terminations: Sedimentary records of flooding, weathering and erosion. Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology, 303, 120-125.
33. Brown, K. S., Marean, C. W., Herries, A. I. R., Jacobs, Z., Tribolo, C., Braun, D., Roberts, D. L., Meyer, M. C., & Bernatchez, J. (2009). Fire as an engineering tool of early modern humans. Science, 325, 859-862.
34. Cashdan, E. (1985). Coping with risk: Reciprocity among the Basarwa of northern Botswana. Man, 20, 454-476.
35. Chase, B. M. (2010). South African palaeonvironments during marine oxygen isotope stage 4: A context for the Howiesons Poort and Still Bay industries. Journal of Archaeological Science, 37, 1359-1366.
36. Christensen, M., & Valentin, B. (2004). Armatures de projectiles et outils, de la production à l'abandon. In N. Pigeot (Ed.), Les derniers Magdaléniens d'Etiolles: Perspectives culturelles et paléohistoriques. Gallia Prehistoire, XXXVIIe supplement (pp. 107-160). Paris: CNRS Editions.
37. Churchill, S. E. (1993). Weapon technology, prey size selection and hunting methods in modern hunter-gatherers: Implications for hunting in the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic. In G. L Peterkin, H. M. Bricker, and P. A. Mellars (Eds.), Hunting and animal exploitation in the Later Palaeolithic and Mesolithic of Eurasia (pp 11-24). Washington D. C.: Archaeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association 4.
38. Clark, J. D. (1970). The Prehistory of Africa. New York: Praeger.
39. Clark, J. L. (2009). Testing models on the emergence and nature of modern human behavior: Middle Stone Age fauna from Sibudu Cave (South Africa). Ph. D. Dissertation, University of Michigan.
40. Clark, J. L. (2011). The evolution of human culture during the later Pleistocene: Using fauna to test models on the emergence and nature of "modern" human behavior. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, 30, 273-291.
41. Clark, J. L., & Plug, I. (2008). Animal exploitation strategies during the South African Middle Stone Age: Howiesons Poort and post-Howiesons Poort fauna from Sibudu Cave. Journal of Human Evolution, 54, 886-898.
42. Clarkson, C. (2010). Regional diversity within the core technology of the Howiesons Poort technocomplex. In S. J. Lycett & P. R. Chauhan (Eds.), New perspectives on old stones: Analytical approaches to Paleolithic technology (pp. 43-49). Dordrecht: Springer.
43. Compton, J. S. (2011). Pleistocene sea-level fluctuations and human evolution on the southern coastal plain of South Africa. Quaternary Science Reviews, 30, 506-527.
44. Conard, N. J. (2008). A critical view of the evidence for a southern African origin of behavioral modernity. Goodwin Series of the South African Archaeological Society, 10, 175-179.
45. Conard, N. J. (2010). Cultural modernity: Consensus or conundrum? Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 107, 7621-7622.
46. d'Errico, F., & Henshilwood, C. S. (2007). Additional evidence for bone technology in the southern African Middle Stone Age. Journal of Human Evolution, 52, 142-163.
47. d'Errico, F., Henshilwood, C., & Nilssen, P. (2001). An engraved bone fragment from ca. 75 kyr Middle Stone Age levels at Blombos Cave, South Africa: Implications for the origin of symbolism and language. Antiquity, 75, 309-318.
48. d'Errico, F., Henshilwood, C., Vanhaeren, M., & van Niekerk, K. (2005). Nassarius kraussianus shell beads from Blombos Cave: Evidence for symbolic behaviour in the Middle Stone Age. Journal of Human Evolution, 48, 2-14.
49. d'Errico, F., Vanhaeren, M., & Wadley, L. (2008). Possible shell beads from the Middle Stone Age of Sibudu Cave. Journal of Archaeological Science, 35, 2675-2685.
50. Davidson, I. (1997). The power of pictures. In M. Conkey, O. Soffer, D. Stratmann, & N. G. Jablonski (Eds.), Beyond Art: Pleistocene image and symbol (Vol. 23, pp. 125-159). San Francisco: Memoirs of the California Academy of Sciences.
51. Deacon, J., 1979. Guide to archaeological sites in the southern Cape. Occasional Publication of the Department of Archaeology, University of Stellenbosch 1, pp. 1-7.
52. Deacon, H. J. (1983). Another look at the Pleistocene climates of South Africa. South African Journal of Science, 79, 325-328.
53. Deacon, H. J. (1989). Late Pleistocene palaeoecology and archaeology in the Southern Cape, South Africa. In P. Mellars & C. B. Stringer (Eds.), The Human Revolution (pp. 547-564). Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
54. Deacon, H. J. (1995). Two late Pleistocene-Holocene archaeological depositories from the Southern Cape, South Africa. South African Archaeological Bulletin, 50, 121-131.
55. Deacon, H. J., & Geleijnse, V. B. (1988). The stratigraphy and sedimentology of the Main Site sequence (Vol. 43, pp. 5-14). Klasies River, South Africa: South African Archaeological Bulletin.
56. Deacon, H. J., & Wurz, S. (1996). Klasies River main site, cave 2: A Howiesons Poort occurrence. In G. Pwiti & R. Soper (Eds.), Aspects of African archaeology (pp. 213-220). Harare: University of Zimbabwe Publications.
57. Delagnes, A., & Rendu, W. (2011). Shifts in Neandertal mobility, technology and subsistence strategies in western France. Journal of Archaeological Science, 38, 1771-1783.
58. Dibble, H. L. (1995). Middle Palaeolithic scraper reduction: Background clarification and review of the evidence to date. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory, 2, 299-368.
59. Dibble, H. L., & Rolland, N. (1992). On assemblage variability in the Middle Palaeolithic of Western Europe, history, perspectives and a new synthesis. In H. L. Dibble & P. Mellars (Eds.), The Middle Palaeolithic: Adaptation, behaviour and variability (pp. 1-28). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology.
60. Diez-Martin, F., Sanchez, P., Dominguez-Rodrigo, M., Mabulla, A., & Barba, R. (2009). Were Olduvai hominins making butchering tools or battering tools? Analysis of a recently excavated lithic assemblage from BK (Bed II, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania). Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, 28, 274-289.
61. Domanski, M., & Webb, J. A. (1992). Effect of heat treatment on siliceous rocks used in prehistoric lithic technology. Journal of Archaeological Science, 19, 601-614.
62. Dusseldorp, G. L. (2012). Tracking the influence of Middle Stone Age technological change on modern human hunting strategies. Quaternary International (in press).
63. Faith, J. T. (2008). Eland, buffalo, and wild pigs: Were Middle Stone Age humans ineffective hunters? Journal of Human Evolution, 55, 24-36.
64. Feathers, J. K. (2002). Luminescence dating in less than ideal conditions: Case studies from Klasies River main site and Duinefontein, South Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science, 29, 177-194.
65. Feathers, J. K., & Bush, D. A. (2000). Luminescence dating of Middle Stone Age Deposits at Die Kelders. Journal of Human Evolution, 38, 91-119.
66. Fischer, E. C., Bar-Matthews, M., Jerardino, A., & Marean, C. W. (2010). Middle and Late Pleistocene paleoscape modeling along the southern coast of South Africa. Quaternary Science Reviews, 29, 1382-1398.
67. Flannery, K. V. (1969). Origins and ecological effects of early domestication in Iran and the Near East. In P. J. Ucko & G. W. Dimbleby (Eds.), The Domestication and exploitation of plants and animals (pp. 73-100). London: Duckworth.
68. Flenniken, J. J., & Raymond, A. W. (1986). Morphological projectile point typology: Replication experimentation and technological analysis. American Antiquity, 51, 603-614.
69. Gonder, M. K., Mortensen, H. M., Reed, F. A., de Sousa, A., & Tishkoff, S. A. (2007). Whole-mtDNA genome sequence analysis of ancient African lineages. Molecular Biology and Evolution, 24, 757-768.
70. Goodwin, A. J. H., & van Riet Lowe, C. (1929). The Stone-Age cultures of South Africa. Annals of the South African Museum, 27, 1-270.
71. Greaves, R. D. (1997). Hunting and multifunctional use of bows and arrows: Ethnoarchaeology of technological organization among Pume hunters of Venezuela. In H. Knecht (Ed.), Projectile Technology (pp. 287-320). New York: Plenum Press.
72. Grove, M. (2010). Logistical mobility reduces subsistence risk in hunting economies. Journal of Archaeological Science, 37, 1913-1921.
73. Grün, R., & Beaumont, P. B. (2001). Border Cave revisited: A revised ESR chronology. Journal of Human Evolution, 40, 467-482.
74. Grün, R., Shackleton, N. J., & Deacon, H. J. (1990). Electron spin resonance dating of tooth enamel from Klasies River Mouth Cave. Current Anthropology, 31, 427-432.
75. Habu, J. (2004). Ancient Jomon of Japan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
76. Hassan, F. A. (1978). Demographic archaeology. Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory, 1, 49-103.
77. Hayden, B. (1979). Paleolithic reflections: Lithic technology and ethnographic excavations among Australian Aborigines. Canberra: Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies.
78. Henshilwood, C. S. (1997). Identifying the collector: Evidence for human processing of the Cape Dune Mole-Rat, Bathyergus suillus, from Blombos Cave, Southern Cape, South Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science, 24, 659-662.
79. Henshilwood, C. S., & Marean, C. W. (2003). The origin of modern human behavior. Current Anthropology, 44, 627-651.
80. Henshilwood, C., Sealy, J. C., Yates, R., Cruz-Uribe, K., Goldberg, P., Grine, F. E., Klein, R. G., Poggenpoel, C., van Niekerk, K., & Watts, I. (2001). Blombos Cave, Southern Cape, South Africa: Preliminary report on the 1992-1999 excavations of the Middle Stone Age levels. Journal of Archaeological Science, 28, 421-448.
81. Henshilwood, C. S., d'Errico, F., Vanhaeren, M., van Niekerk, K., & Jacobs, Z. (2004). Middle Stone Age shell beads from South Africa. Science, 304, 404.
82. Henshilwood, C. S., d'Errico, F., van Niekerk, K. L., Coquinot, Y., Jacobs, Z., Lauritzen, S. E., Menu, M., & García-Moreno, R. (2011). A 100, 000-year-old ochre-processing workshop at Blombos Cave, South Africa. Science, 334, 219-221.
83. Hiscock, P. (1994). Technological responses to risk in Holocene Australia. Journal of World Prehistory, 8, 267-292.
84. Hiscock, P. (2009). Reduction, recycling, and raw material procurement in Western Arnhem Land, Australia. In B. Adams & B. Blades (Eds.), Lithic Materials and Paleolithic Societies (pp. 78-93). Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
85. Hiscock, P., Clarkson, C., & Mackay, A. (2011). Big debates over little tools: Ongoing disputes over microliths on three continents. World Archaeology, 43, 653-664.
86. Högberg, A., & Larsson, L. (2011). Lithic technology and behavioural modernity: New results from the Still Bay site, Hollow Rock Shelter, Western Cape Province, South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution, 61, 133-155.
87. Jacobs, Z., & Roberts, R. G. (2009). Catalysts for Stone Age innovations: What might have triggered two short-lived bursts of technological and behavioral innovation in southern Africa during the Middle Stone Age? Communicative and Integrative Biology, 2, 191-193.
88. Jacobs, Z., Duller, G. A. T., Wintle, A. G., & Henshilwood, C. S. (2006). Extending the chronology of deposits at Blombos Cave, South Africa, back to 140 ka using optical dating of single and multiple grains of quartz. Journal of Human Evolution, 51, 255-273.
89. Jacobs, Z., Roberts, R. G., Galbraith, R. F., Deacon, H. J., Grun, R., Mackay, A., Mitchell, P., Vogelsang, R., & Wadley, L. (2008). Ages for the Middle Stone Age of southern Africa: Implications for human behavior and dispersal. Science, 322, 733-735.
90. Jerardino, A. (2010). Prehistoric exploitation of marine resources in Southern Africa with particular reference to shellfish gathering: Opportunities and continuities. Pyrenae, 41, 7-52.
91. Jerardino, A., & Marean, C. W. (2010). Shellfish gathering, marine paleoecology and modern human behavior: Perspectives from cave PP13B, Pinnacle Point, South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution, 59, 412-424.
92. Jeske, R. J. (1989). Economies in raw material use by prehistoric hunter-gatherers. In R. Torrence (Ed.), Time, energy, and stone tools (pp. 34-45). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
93. Johnson, E., & Bement, L. C. (2009). Bison butchery at Cooper, a Folsom site on the Southern Plains. Journal of Archaeological Science, 46, 1430-1446.
94. Kelly, R. L. (1988), The three sides of a biface. American Antiquity, 53, 717-734.
95. Kelly, R. L. (1995), The foraging spectrum: Diversity in hunter-gatherer lifeways. Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.
96. Kelly, R. L., & Todd, L. (1988). Coming into the country: Early Paleoindian hunting and mobility. American Antiquity, 53, 231-244.
97. Kent, S. (1993). Sharing in a Kalahari village. Man, 28, 479-514.
98. Klein, R. G. (1976), The mammalian fauna of the Klasies River Mouth sites, southern Cape Province, South Africa. South African Archaeological Bulletin, 31, 74-98.
99. Klein, R. G. (2000). Archeology and the evolution of human behavior. Evolutionary Anthropology, 9, 17-36.
100. Klein, R. G., & Cruz-Uribe, K. (2000). Middle and Later Stone Age large mammal and tortoise remains from Die Kelders, Cave 1, Western Cape Province, South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution, 38, 169-195.
101. Klein, R. G., & Edgar, B. (2002), The dawn of human culture. New York: Wiley.
102. Klein, R. G., Avery, G., Cruz-Uribe, K., Halkett, D., Parkington, J. E., Steele, T., Volman, T. P., & Yates, R. (2004), The Ysterfontein 1 Middle Stone Age site, South Africa, and early human exploitation of coastal resources. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 101, 5708-5715.
103. Langejans, G. H. J., van Niekerk, K., Dusseldorp, G. L., Thackeray, J. F. (2012). Middle Stone Age shellfish exploitation: Evidence for mass collecting at Blombos Cave and Klasies River, South Africa. Quaternary International (in press).
104. Lee, R. (1979), The Kung San: Men, women and work in a foraging society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
105. Lombard, M. (2005a). The Howiesons Poort of South Africa: What we know, what we think we know, what we need to know. Southern African Humanities, 17, 33-55.
106. Lombard, M. (2005b). Evidence of hunting and hafting during the Middle Stone Age at Sibudu Cave, KwaZulu-Natal: A multianalytical approach. Journal of Human Evolution, 48, 279-300.
107. Lombard, M. (2006). Direct evidence for the use of ochre in the hafting technology of Middle Stone Age tools from Sibudu Cave. Southern African Humanities, 18, 57-67.
108. Lombard, M. (2007a). The gripping nature of ochre: The association of ochre with Howiesons Poort adhesives and Later Stone Age mastics from South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution, 53, 406-419.
109. Lombard, M. (2007b). The morphological identification of micro-residues on stone tools using light microscopy: Progress and difficulties based on blind tests. Journal of Archaeological Science, 34, 155-165.
110. Lombard, M. (2008). Finding resolution for the Howiesons Poort through the microscope: Microresidue analysis of segments from Sibudu Cave, South Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science, 35, 26-41.
111. Lombard, M. (2009). The Howieson's Poort of South Africa amplified. South African Archaeological Bulletin, 64, 4-12.
112. Lombard, M., & Pargeter, J. (2008). Hunting with Howiesons Poort segments: Pilot experimental study and the functional interpretation of archaeological tools. Journal of Archaeological Science, 35, 26-41.
113. Lombard, M., & Parsons, I. (2010). Fact or fiction? Behavioural and technological reversal after 60 ka in Southern Africa. South African Archaeological Bulletin, 65, 224-228.
114. Lombard, M., & Phillipson, L. (2010). Indications of bow and stone-tipped arrow use 64 000 years ago in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Antiquity, 84, 1-14.
115. Mackay, A. (2009). History and selection in the late Pleistocene archaeology of the Western Cape, South Africa. Ph. D. Dissertation, Australia National University.
116. Mackay, A. (2011). Nature and significance of the Howiesons Poort to post-Howiesons Poort transition at Klein Kliphuis rockshelter, South Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science, 38, 1430-1440.
117. Marean, C. W. (1998). A critique of the evidence for scavenging by Neandertals and early modern humans: New data from Kobeh Cave (Zagros Mountains, Iran) and Die Kelders Cave 1 Layer 10 (South Africa). Journal of Human Evolution, 35, 111-126.
118. Marean, C. W. (2008). The African origins of modern human behavior. In Nobel Conference 44. Gustavus Adolphus College. http://gustavus. edu/events/ nobelconference/2008/7 October.
119. Marean, C. W. (2010). Pinnacle Point Cave 13B (Western Cape Province, South Africa) in context: The Cape Floral kingdom, shellfish, and modern human origins. Journal of Human Evolution, 59, 425-443.
120. Marean, C. W., & Kim, S. Y. (1998). Mousterian faunal remains from Kobeh Cave (Zagros Mountains, Iran): Behavioral implications for Neanderthals and early modern humans. Current Anthropology, 39, S79-S113.
121. Marean, C. W., Abe, Y., Frey, C. J., & Randall, R. C. (2000). Zooarchaeological and taphonomic analysis of the Die Kelders Cave 1 Layers 10 and 11 Middle Stone Age larger mammal fauna. Journal of Human Evolution, 38, 197-233.
122. Marean, C. W., Nilssen, P., Brown, K., Jerardino, A., & Stynder, D. (2004). Paleoanthropological investigations of Middle Stone Age sites at Pinnacle Point, Mossel Bay (South Africa): Archaeology and hominid remains from the 2000 field season. PaleoAnthropology, 2004, 14-83.
123. Marean, C. W., Bar-Matthews, M., Bernatchez, J., Fisher, E., Goldberg, P., Herries, A. I. R., Jacobs, Z., Jerardino, A., Karkanas, P., Minichillo, T., Nilssen, P. J., Thompson, E., Watts, I., & Williams, H. M. (2007). Early human use of marine resources and pigment in South Africa during the Middle Pleistocene. Nature, 449, 905-908.
124. Marshack, A. (1972). Upper Paleolithic notation and symbol. Science, 178, 817-828.
125. McBrearty, S., & Brooks, A. S. (2000). The revolution that wasn't: A new interpretation of the origin of modern human behavior. Journal of Human Evolution, 39, 453-563.
126. McCall, G. S. (2006). Multivariate perspectives on change and continuity in the Middle Stone Age lithics from Klasies River Mouth, South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution, 51, 429-439.
127. McCall, G. S. (2007). Behavioral ecological models of lithic technological change during the later Middle Stone Age of South Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science, 34, 1738-1751.
128. McCall, G. S. (2011). Progression, regression, or adaption: Further thoughts on the post-Howiesons Poort Middle Stone Age of South Africa. South African Archaeological Bulletin, 66, 89-92.
129. McCall, G. S. (2012). Ethnoarchaeology and the organization of lithic technology. Journal of Archaeological Research, 20, 157-203.
130. McCall, G. S., & Thomas, J. T. (2009). Re-examining the South African Middle-to-Later Stone Age transition: Multivariate analysis of the Umhlatuzana and Rose Cottage Cave stone tool assemblages. Azania, 44, 311-340.
131. McCall, G. S., & Whittaker, J. C. (2007). Handaxes still don't fly. Lithic Technology, 32, 195-202.
132. Mellars, P. (1989). Major issues in the origins of modern humans. Current Anthropology, 30, 349-385.
133. Mellars, P. (2005). The impossible coincidence. A single-species model for the origins of modern human behavior in Europe. Evolutionary Anthropology, 14, 12-27.
134. Mellars, P. (2006a). Why did modern human populations disperse from Africa ca. 60, 000 years ago? A new model. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 103, 9381-9386.
135. Mellars, P. (2006b). Archaeology and the dispersal of modern humans in Europe: Deconstructing the "Aurignacian,". Evolutionary Anthropology 15, 167-182.
136. Mellars, P., Boyle, K., Bar-Yosef, O., & Stringer, C. (Eds.). (2007). Rethinking the uuman revolution: New behavioural and biological perspectives on the origin and dispersal of modern humans. Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research.
137. Miller, G. H., Beaumont, P. B., Deacon, H. J., Brooks, A. S., Hare, P. E., & Jull, A. J. T. (1999). Earliest modern humans in southern Africa dated by isoleucine epimerization in ostrich eggshell. Quaternary Science Reviews, 18, 1537-1548.
138. Milo, R. G. (1998). Evidence for hominid predation at Klasies River Mouth, South Africa, and its implications for the behavior of early modern humans. Journal of Archaeological Science, 25, 99-133.
139. Minichillo, T. J. (2005). Middle Stone Age Lithic Study, South Africa: An examination of modern human origins. Ph. D. Thesis, University of Washington.
140. Minichillo, T. (2006). Raw material use and behavioral modernity: Howiesons Poort lithic foraging strategies. Journal of Human Evolution, 50, 359-364.
141. Mitchell, P. (1988). The late Pleistocene early microlithic assemblages of southern Africa. World Archaeology, 20, 27-39.
142. Mohapi, M. (2007). Rose Cottage Cave Middle Stone Age lithic points: Does technological change imply change in hunting techniques? South African Archaeological Bulletin, 62, 9-18.
143. Montet-White, A. (2002). Les outillages des chasseurs de Solutré. Mémoires de la Société Préhistorique Française, 30, 225-241.
144. Mourre, V., Villa, P., & Henshilwood, C. S. (2010). Early use of pressure flaking on lithic artifacts at Blombos Cave, South Africa. Science, 330, 659-662.
145. Mulvaney, D. J. (1969). The prehistory of Australia. New York: Praeger.
146. Munro, N. D. (1999). Small game as indicators of sedentization during the Natufian period at Hayonim in Israel. In J. Driver (Ed.), Zooarchaeology of the Pleistocene/Holocene boundary (pp. 37-45). Oxford: BAR International Series 800, British Archaeological Reports.
147. Neeley, M. P., and Clark, G. A. (1993). The human food niche in the Levant over the past 150, 000 years. In G. L. Peterkin, H. M. Bricker and P. A. Mellars (Eds.) Hunting and animal exploitation in the Later Palaeolithic and Mesolithic of Eurasia (pp. 221-240). Washington, D. C.: Archaeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association 4.
148. Nowell, A. (2010). Defining behavioral modernity in the context of Neanderthal and anatomically modern human populations. Annual Review of Anthropology, 39, 437-452.
149. Odell, G. H. (1996). Economizing behavior and the concept of "curation." In G. H. Odell (Ed.), Stone tools: Theoretical insights into human prehistory (pp. 51-80). New York: Plenum Press.
150. Pargeter, J. (2007). Howiesons Poort segments as hunting weapons: Experiments with replicated projectiles. South African Archaeological Bulletin, 62, 147-53.
151. Parkington, J. (1990). A critique of the consensus view on the age of the Howieson's Poort assemblages in South Africa. In P. Mellars (Ed.), The emergence of modern humans (pp. 34-55). Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
152. Parry, W. J., & Kelly, R. L. (1987). Expedient core technology and sedentism. In J. Johnson & C. A. Morrow (Eds.), The organization of core technology (pp. 285-304). Boulder: Westview Press.
153. Plug, I. (2004). Resource exploitation: Animal use during the Middle Stone Age at Sibudu Cave, KwaZulu-Natal. South African Journal of Science, 100, 151-158.
154. Plug, I. (2006). Aquatic animals and their associates from the Middle Stone Age levels at Sibudu. Southern African Humanities, 18, 289-299.
155. Plug, I., & Clark, J. L. (2008). In the air: A preliminary report on the birds from Sibudu Cave. KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa Archaeological Society Goodwin Series, 10, 133-142.
156. Porraz, G., Texier, P.-J., Rigaud, J.-P., Parkington, J., Poggenpoel, C., & Roberts, D. L. (2008). Preliminary characterisation of an MSA lithic assemblage preceding the 'classic' HP complex at Diepkloof Rock Shelter. South African Archaeological Society Goodwin Series, 10, 105-121.
157. Powell, A., Shennan, S., & Thomas, M. G. (2009). Late Pleistocene demography and the appearance of modern human behavior. Science, 324, 1298-1301.
158. Rigaud, J.-P., Texier, P.-J., Parkington, J., & Poggenpoel, C. (2006). Le mobilier Stillbay et Howiesons Poort de l'abri Diepkloof. La chronologie du Middle Stone Age sud-africain et ses implications. Comptes Rendus Palevol, 5, 839-849.
159. Sampson, C. G. (1974). The Stone Age archaeology of southern Africa. New York: Academic.
160. Sealy, J., & Galimberti, M. (2011). Shellfishing and the interpretation of shellfish sizes in the Middle and Later Stone Ages of South Africa. In N. F. Bicho, J. A. Haws, & L. G. Davis (Eds.), Trekking the shore: Changing Coastlines and the Antiquity of coastal settlement (pp. 405-420). New York: Springer.
161. Sellet, F. (2004). Beyond the point: Projectile manufacture and behavioral inference. Journal of Archaeological Science, 31, 1553-1566.
162. Shea, J. J. (1997). Middle Paleolithic spear point technology. In H. Knecht (Ed.), Projectile Technology (pp. 79-106). New York: Plenum Press.
163. Shea, J. J. (2006). The origins of lithic projectile point technology: Evidence from Africa, the Levant, and Europe. Journal of Archaeological Science, 33, 823-46.
164. Shea, J. J. (2009). The impact of projectile weaponry on Late Pleistocene hominin evolution. In J.-J. Hublin & M. P. Richards (Eds.), The evolution of hominin diets: Integrating approaches to the study of Palaeolithic subsistence (pp. 189-199). Dordrecht: Springer.
165. Shea, J. J. (2011). Homo sapiens is as Homo sapiens was. Current Anthropology, 52, 1-35.
166. Shea, J. J., Davis, Z., & Brown, K. (2001). Experimental tests of Middle Paleolithic spear points using a calibrated crossbow. Journal of Archaeological Science, 28, 807-816.
167. Shennan, S. (2001). Demography and cultural innovation: A model and its implications for the emergence of modern human culture. Cambridge Archaeological Journal, 11, 5-16.
168. Shott, M. J. (2007). The role of reduction in lithic studies. Lithic Technology, 32, 131-141.
169. Singer, R., & Wymer, J. (1982). The Middle Stone Age at Klasies River Mouth in South Africa. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
170. Sisk, M. L., & Shea, J. J. (2009). Experimental use and quantitative performance analysis of triangular flakes (Levallois points) used as arrowheads. Journal of Archaeological Science, 36, 2039-2047.
171. Soressi, M., & Dibble, H. L. (Eds.). (2003). Multiple approaches to the study of bifacial technologies. Philadelphia: The University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology.
172. Soressi, M., & Hays, M. A. (2003). Manufacture, transport, and use of Mousterian bifaces: A case study from the Périgord, (France) In M. Soressi & H. L. Dibble (Eds.), Multiple approaches to the study of bifacial technologies (pp. 125-148). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology.
173. Soriano, S., Villa, P., & Wadley, L. (2007). Blade technology and tool forms in the Middle Stone Age of South Africa: The Howiesons Poort and post-Howiesons Poort at Rose Cottage Cave. Journal of Archaeological Science, 34, 681-703.
174. Speer, C. A. (2010). Understanding the effects of heat treatment on Edwards Plateau chert. Ethnoarchaeology, 2, 153-172.
175. Stiner, M. C. (2001). Thirty years on the "Broad Spectrum Revolution" and paleolithic demography. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 98, 6993-6996.
176. Stiner, M. C., Munro, N. D., & Surovell, T. A. (2000). The tortoise and the hare: Small game use, the Broad Spectrum Revolution, and Paleolithic demography. Current Anthropology, 41, 39-73.
177. Straus, L. G. (1991). Southwestern Europe at the last glacial maximum. Current Anthropology, 32, 189-199.
178. Texier, P.-J., Porraz, G., Parkington, J., Rigaud, J.-P., Poggenpoel, C., Miller, C., Tribolo, C., Cartwright, C., Coudenneau, A., Klein, R., Steele, T., & Verna, C. (2010). A Howiesons Poort tradition of engraving ostrich eggshell containers dated to 60, 000 years ago at Diepkloof Rock Shelter, South Africa. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 107, 6180-6185.
179. Thackeray, J. F. (1988). The molluscan fauna from Klasies River, South Africa. South African Archaeological Bulletin, 43, 27-32.
180. Thackeray, J. F. (2009). Chronology, climate and technological innovation associated with the Howieson's Poort and Still Bay industries in South Africa. South African Journal of Science, 105, 90.
181. Thieme, H. (2005). The Lower Paleolithic art of hunting: The case of Shoningen 13 II-4, Lower Saxony, Germany. In C. Camble & M. Porr (Eds.), The Individual hominid in context: Archaeological investigations of Middle and Lower Paleolithic landscapes, locales, and artifacts (pp. 115-132). New York: Routledge.
182. Thompson, J. C. (2008). Zooarchaeological tests for modern human behavior at Blombos Cave and Pinnacle Point Cave 13B, Southwestern Cape, South Africa. Ph. D. Dissertation, Arizona State University.
183. Thompson, J. C., & Henshilwood, C. S. (2011). Taphonomic analysis of the Middle Stone Age larger mammal faunal assemblage from Blombos Cave, southern Cape, South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution, 60, 746-767.
184. Tishkoff, S. A., Gonder, M. K., Henn, B. M., Mortensen, H., Knight, A., Gignoux, C., Fernandopulle, N., Lema, G., Nyambo, T. B., & Ramakrishnan, U. (2007). Historyof click-speaking populations of Africa inferred from mtDNA and Y chromosome genetic variation. Molecular Biology and Evolution, 24, 2180-2195.
185. Tribolo, C., Mercier, N., Selo, M., Valladas, H., Joron, J.-L., Reyss, J.-L., Henshilwood, C. S., Sealy, J., & Yates, R. (2006). TL dating of burnt lithics from Blombos Cave (South Africa): Further evidence for the antiquity of modern human behaviour. Archaeometry, 48, 341-357.
186. Tribolo, C., Mercier, A., Valladas, H., Joron, J. L., Guibert, P., Lefrais, Y., Selo, M., Texier, P.-J, Rigaud, J.-Ph., Porraz, G., Poggenpoel, C., Parkington, J., Texier, J.-P., & Lenoble, A. (2009). Thermoluminescence dating of a Stillbay-Howiesons Poort sequence at Diepkloof Rock Shelter (Western Cape, South Africa). Journal of Archaeological Science, 36, 730-739.
187. Tuohy, D. (2004). Archaeological curved throwing sticks from Fish Gave, near Fallon, Nevada. Journal of California and Great Basin Studies, 24, 13-20.
188. Valentin, B., Julien, M., and Bodu, P. (2002). Lithic raw material economy in the Late Glacial of the Paris Basin: Case studies from Magdalenian, Federmesser and long blade technology hunter-gatherers. In L. E Fischer and B. V. Erikson (Eds.), Lithic raw material economies in late glacial and early postglacial Europe (pp. 117-132). London: British Archaeological Reports, vol. 1093, Tempus Reparatsm.
189. Vanhaeren, M., d'Errico, F., Stringer, C., James, S., Todd, J. A., & Mienis, H. (2006). Middle Paleolithic shell beads in Israel and Algeria. Science, 312, 1785-1788.
190. Villa, P., Delagnes, A., & Wadley, L. (2005). A Late Middle Stone Age artifact assemblage from Sibudu (KwaZulu-Natal). Comparisons with the European Middle Paleolithic. Journal of Archaeological Science, 32, 399-422.
191. Villa, P., Soressi, M., Henshilwood, C. S., & Mourre, V. (2009). The Still Bay points of Blombos Cave (South Africa). Journal of Archaeological Science, 36, 441-460.
192. Villa, P., Soriano, S., Teyssandier, N., & Wurz, S. (2010). The Howiesons Poort and MSA III at Klasies River main site, Cave 1A. Journal of Archaeological Science, 37, 630-655.
193. Volman, T. P. (1981). The Middle Stone Age in the southern Cape. Ph. D. Dissertation, University of Chicago.
194. Volman, T. P. (1984). Early prehistory of southern Africa. In R. G. Klein (Ed.), Southern African prehistory and paleoenvironments (pp. 169-220). Rotterdam: Balkema.
195. Wadley, L. (2001). What is cultural modernity? A general view and a South African perspective from Rose Cottage Cave. Cambridge Archaeological Journal, 11, 201-221.
196. Wadley, L. (2005). A typological study of the final Middle Stone Age stone tools from Sibudu Cave, KwaZulu-Natal. South African Archaeological Bulletin, 60, 1-13.
197. Wadley, L. (2007). Announcing a Still Bay industry at Sibudu Cave, South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution, 52, 681-689.
198. Wadley, L. (2008). The Howieson's Poort industry of Sibudu Cave. South African Archaeological Society Goodwin Series, 10, 122-132.
199. Wadley, L. (2010a). Were snares and traps used in the Middle Stone Age and does it matter? A review and a case study from Sibudu, South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution, 58, 179-192.
200. Wadley, L. (2010b). Compound-adhesive manufacture as a behavioral proxy for complex cognition in the Middle Stone Age. Current Anthropology, 51, S111-S119.
201. Wadley, L., & Binneman, J. N. F. (1995). Arrowheads or pen knives? A microwear analysis of mid-Holocene stone segments from Jubilee Shelter, Transvaal. South African Journal of Science, 91, 153-155.
202. Wadley, L., & Mohapi, M. (2008). A segment is not a monolith: Evidence from the Howiesons Poort of Sibudu, South Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science, 35, 2594-2605.
203. Wadley, L., Hodgskiss, T., & Grant, M. (2009). Implications for complex cognition from the hafting of tools with compound adhesives in the Middle Stone Age, South Africa. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 106, 9590-9594.
204. Weiss, E., Wetterstrom, W., Nadel, D., & Bar-Yosef, O. (2004). The broad spectrum revisited: Evidence from plant remains. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 101, 9551-9555.
205. Wendt, W. E. (1972). Preliminary report on an archaeological research program in South West Africa. Cimbebasia (B), 11, 1-61.
206. Whittaker, J. C. (1994). Flintknapping: Making and understanding stone tools. Austin: University of Texas Press.
207. Wiessner, P. (1982). Risk, reciprocity and social influences on Kung San economics. In E. Leacock & R. B. Lee (Eds.), Politics and history in band societies (pp. 61-84). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
208. Wiessner, P. (2002). Hunting, healing, and hxaro exchange: A long-term perspective on Kung (Ju/'hoansi) large-game hunting. Evolution and Human Behavior, 23, 407-436.
209. Wurz, S. (1999). The Howiesons Poort backed artifacts from Klasies River: An argument for symbolic behaviour. South African Archaeological Bulletin, 54, 38-50.
210. Wurz, S. (2000). The Middle Stone Age at Klasies River. D. Phil. Dissertation, University of Stellenbosch.
211. Wurz, S. (2002). Variability in the Middle Stone Age lithic sequence, 115, 000-60, 000 years ago at Klasies River, South Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science, 29, 1001-1015.
212. Wurz, S. (2008). Modern behaviour at Klasies River. South African Archaeological Society Goodwin Series, 10, 150-156.
213. Wurz, S. (2010). Middle Stone Age tools from Klasies River main site: Conventions and symbolic cognition. In A. Nowell & I. Davidson (Eds.), The cutting edge: Stone tools and the evolution of cognition (pp. 135-158). Boulder: Colorado University Press.
214. Wurz, S., & Lombard, M. (2007). 70, 000 year-old geometric backed tools from the Howiesons Poort at Klasies River, South Africa: Were they used for hunting? Southern African Humanities, 19, 1-16.
215. Wurz, S. (2012). The significance of MIS 5 shell middens on the Cape coast: A lithic perspective from Klasies River and Ysterfontein 1. Quaternary International (in press).
216. Yu, P.-L. (2006). From atlatl to bow and arrow. In F. Sellet, R. Greaves, & P.-L. Yu (Eds.), Archaeology and ethnoarchaeology of mobility (pp. 201-220). Gainesville: University Press of Florida.