Late Pleistocene human population bottlenecks, volcanic winter, and differentiation of modern humans

Journal of Human Evolution

Volumn 34, Issue 6, 1998, Pages 623-651

  Ambrose, Stanley H ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA CHAMPAIGN   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

HUMAN EVOLUTION; PLEISTOCENE;

ANIMALIA; HOMINIDAE; PRIMATES;

EID: 0032098253     PISSN: 00472484     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1006/jhev.1998.0219     Document Type: Article

References (166)

1. Acharyya, S. K. & Basu, P. K. (1993). Toba ash on the Indian subcontinent and its implications for cor-relation of Late Pleistocene alluvium. Quatern. Res. 40, 10-19.
2. Aiello, L. C. (1993). The fossil evidence for modern human origins in Africa: a revised view. Am. Anthrop. 95, 73-96.
3. Ambrose, S. H. (1997). Implications of geomagnetic field variation for the chronology of the Middle to Later Stone Age and Middle to Upper Paleolithic transitions. J. hum. Evol 32(4), A2.
4. Ambrose, S. H. (1998). Chronology of the Later Stone Age and food production in East Africa. J. Archaeol. Sci. 25, 377-392.
5. Ambrose, S. H. & Lorenz, K. G. (1990). Social and ecological models for the Middle Stone Age in Southern Africa. In (P. Mellars, Ed.) The Emergence of Modem Humans, pp. 3-33. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
6. Anderson, D. K., Damuth, J. & Bown, T. M. (1995). Rapid morphological change in Miocene marsupials and rodents associated with a volcanic catastrophe in Argentina. J. Vert. Paleontol. 15, 640-649.
7. Ayala, F. J. (1995). The myth of Eve: molecular biology and human origins. Science 270, 1930-1936.
8. Ayala, F. J. (1996a). Gene lineages and human evolution. Science 272, 1363-1364.
9. Ayala, F. J. (1996b). HLA sequence polymorphisms and the origin of humans. Science 274, 1554.
10. Ayala, F. J. & Escalante, A. A. (1996). The evolution of human populations: a molecular perspective. Mol Phylogenetics Evol. 5, 188-201.
11. Bar-Yosef, O. (1994). The contribution of southwest Asia to the study of modern human origins. In (M. H. Nitecki & D. V. Nitecki, Eds) Origins of Anatomically Modern Humans, pp. 22-36. New York: Plenum Press.
12. Bar-Yosef, O., Arnold, M., Mercier, N, Belfer-Cohen, A., Goldberg, P., Housley, R., Laville, H., Meignen, L., Vogel, J. C. & Vandermeersch, B. (1996). The dating of Upper Paleolithic layers in Kebara Cave, Mt Carmel. J. Archaeol. Sci. 23, 297-306.
13. Beaumont, P. B., De Villiers, H. & Vogel, J. C. (1978). Modern man in sub-Saharan Africa prior to 49,000 bp: a review with particular reference to Border Cave. S. Afr. J. Sci. 74, 409-419.
14. Beck, W. J., Récy, J., Taylor, F., Edwards, R. L. & Cabioch, G. (1997). Abrupt changes in early Holocene tropical sea surface temperature derived from coral records. Nature 385, 705-707.
15. Bischoff, J. L., Ludwig, K., Garcia, J. F., Carbonell, E., Vaquero, M., Stafford, T. W., Jr & Juli, A. J. T. (1994). Dating of the basal Aurignacian sandwich at Abric Romani (Catalunya, Spain) by radiocarbon and uranium-series. J. Archaeol. Sci. 21, 541-551.
16. Boaz, N. (1997). Eco Homo. New York: BasicBooks.
17. Bond, G., Showers, W., Cheseby, M., Lotti, R., Almasi, P., deMenocal, P., Priore, P., Cullen, H., Hajdas, I. & Bonani, G. (1997). A pervasive millennial-scale cycle in north Atlantic Holocene and glacial climatic cycles. Science 278, 1257-1266.
18. Bond, G., Broecker, W., Johnsen, S., McManus, J., Labeyrie, L., Jouzel, J. & Bonani, G. (1993). Correlations between climate records from North Atlantic sediments and Greenland ice. Nature 365, 143-147.
19. Bortolini, M. C., Zago, M., Salzano, F. M., Silva-Junior, W. A., Bonatto, S. L., Da Silva, M. C. B. O. & Weimer, T. A. (1997). Evolutionary and anthropological implications of mitochondrial DNA variation in African Brazilian populations. Hum. Biol. 69, 141-159.
20. Brandon-Jones, D. (1996). The Asian Colobinae (Mammalia: Cercopithecidae) as indicators of Quaternary climate change. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 59, 327-350.
21. Bräuer, G. (1992). Africa's place in the evolution of modern humans. In (G. Bräuer & F. H. Smith, Eds) Continuity or Replacement. Controversies in Homo sapiens Evolution, pp. 63-98. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema.
22. Bräuer, G., Yokoyama, Y., Falguères, C. & Mbua, E. (1997). Modern human origins backdated. Nature 386, 337-338.
23. Brooks, A. S. & Robertshaw, P. T. (1990). The glacial maximum in tropical Africa: 22,000-12,000 BP. In (C. Gamble & O. Soffer, Eds) The World at 18,000 BP, Vol. 2, Low Latitudes, pp. 121-169. London: Unwin Hyman.
24. Burnham, R. J. (1993). Time resolution in terrestrial macrofloras: guidelines from modern accumulations. In (S. M. Kidwell & A. K. Behrensmeyer, Eds) Taphonomic Approaches to Time Resolution in Fossil Assemblages, pp. 57-78. Paleontological Society, Short Courses in Paleontology, No. 6. Knoxville: University of Tennessee.
25. Butzer, K. W. (1988). A "marginality" model to explain major spatial and temporal gaps in the Old and New World Pleistocene settlement records. Geoarchaeology 3, 193-203.
26. Cann, R. L., Stoneking, M. L. & Wilson, A. C. (1987). Mitochondrial DNA and human evolution. Nature 325: 31-36.
27. Cavalli-Sforza, L. L., Menozzi, P. & Piazza, A. (1994). The History and Geography of Human Genes. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
28. Cavalli-Sforza, L. L., Piazza, A., Menozzi, P. & Mountain, J. (1988). Reconstruction of human evolution: bringing together genetic, archaeological and linguistic data. Proc. natn. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 85, 6002-6006.
29. Chesner, C. A., Rose, W. I., Deino, A., Drake, R. & Westgate, J. A. (1991). Eruptive history of earth's largest Quaternary caldera (Toba, Indonesia) clarified. Geology 19, 200-203.
30. Clark, J. D. (1982). The cultures of the Middle Paleolithic/Middle Stone Age. In (J. D. Clark, Ed.) Cambridge History of Africa, Vol. 1, pp. 248-341. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
31. Dansgaard, W., Johnsen, S. J., Clausen, H. B., Dahl-Jensen, D., Gundestrup, N. S., Hammer, C. U., Hvidberg, C. S., Steffensen, J. P., Sveinbjornsdottir, A. E., Jouzel, J. & Bond, G. (1993). Evidence for general instability of past climate from a 250-kyr ice-core record. Nature 364, 218-220.
32. Dawson, A. G. (1992). Ice Age Earth. Late Quaternary Geology and Climate. London: Routledge.
33. Deacon, H. J. (1995). Two Late Pleistocene-Holocene archaeological depositories from the Southern Cape, South Africa. S. Afr. Archaeol. Bull. 50, 121-131.
34. Deacon, H. J., Deacon, J., Scholtz, A., Thackeray, J. F., Brink, J. S. & Vogel, J. C. (1984). Correlation of paleoenvironmental data from the Late Pleistocene and Holocene deposits at Boomplaas Cave, southern Cape. In (J. C. Vogel, Ed.) Late Cainozoic Paleoclimates of the Southern Hemisphere, pp. 339-352. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema.
35. di Rienzo, A. & Wilson, A. C. (1991). Branching pattern in the evolutionary tree for human mitochondrial DNA. Proc. natn. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 88, 1597-1601.
36. Dobzhansky, T. & Pavlovsky, O. (1953). Indeterminate outcome of certain experiments on Drosophila populations. Evolution 7, 198-210.
37. Eldredge, N. & Gould, S. J. (1972). Punctuated equilibria: an alternative to phyletic gradualism. In (T. J. M. Schopf, Ed.) Models in Paleobiology, pp. 82-115. San Francisco: Freeman Cooper.
38. Erlich, H. A., Bergström, T. F., Stoneking, M. & Gyllensten, U. (1996). HLA sequence polymorphisms and the origin of humans. Science 274, 1552-1554.
39. Ferris, S. D., Brown, W. H., Davidson, W. S. & Wilson, A. C. (1981). Extensive polymorphism in the mitochondrial DNA of Apes. Proc. natn. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 78, 6319-6323.
40. Flenley, J. R. (1996). Problems of the Quaternary on mountains of the Sunda-Sahul region. Quat. Sci. Rev. 15, 557-580.
41. Foley, R. & Lahr, M. M. (1997). Mode 3 technologies and the evolution of modern humans. Cambridge Archaeol. J. 7, 3-36.
42. Gabunia, L. & Veuka, A. (1995). A Plio-Pleistocene hominid from Dmanisi, East Georgia, Caucasus. Nature 373, 509-512.
43. Gamble, C. & Soffer, O. (1990). The World at 18,000 BP, Vol. 2, Low Latitudes. London: Unwin Hyman.
44. Giles, E. & Ambrose, S. H. (1986). Are we all "out of Africa"? Nature 322, 21-22.
45. Goebel, T. & Aksenov, M. (1995). Accelerator radiocarbon dating the initial Upper Paleolithic in southeast Siberia. Antiquity 69, 349-357.
46. Goebel, T., Derevianko, A. P. & Petrin, V. T. (1993). Dating the Middle-to-Upper-Paleolithic transition at Kara-Bom. Curr. Anthropol. 34, 452-458.
47. Goldberg, T. L. (1996). Genetics and Biogeography of East African Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii). PhD. Dissertation, Cambridge: Harvard University.
48. Goldstein, D. B., Ruiz Linares, A., Cavalli-Sforza, L. L. & Feldman, M. W. (1995). Genetic absolute dating based on microsatellites and the origin of modern humans. Proc. natn. Acad. Sci, U.S.A. 92, 6723-6727.
49. Grine, F. E., Klein, R. G. & Volman, T. P. (1991). Dating, archaeology and human fossils from the Middle Stone Age Levels of Die Kelders, South Africa. J. hum. Evol. 21, 363-395.
50. Haigh, J. & Maynard Smith, J. (1972). Population size and protein variation in man. Genetical Res. 19, 73-89.
51. Hamilton, A. C. (1976). The significance of patterns of distribution shown by forest plants and animals for the reconstruction of Upper Pleistocene paleoenvironments: a review. Palaeoecol Afr. 9, 63-97.
52. Hammer, M. F., Spurdle, A. B., Karafet, T., Bonner, M. R., Wood, E. T., Novelletto, A., Malaspina, P., Mitchell, R. J., Horai, S., Jenkins, T. & Zegura, S. L. (1997). The geographic distribution of human Y chromosome variation. Genetics 145, 787-805.
53. Hammer, M. F. & Zegura, S. L. (1996). The role of the Y chromosome in human evolutionary studies. Evol. Anthrop. 5, 116-134.
54. Handler, P. (1989). The effect of volcanic aerosols on climate. J. Volcanol Geotherm. Res. 37, 233-249.
55. Handler, P. & Andsager, K. (1994). El Niño, volcanism, and global climate. Hum. Evol. 22, 37-57.
56. Harpending, H., Relethford, J. & Sherry, S. T. (1996). Methods and models for understanding human diversity. In (A. J. Boyce & C. G. N. Mascie-Taylor, Eds) Molecular Biology and Human Diversity, pp. 283-299. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
57. Harpending, H. C., Sherry, S. T., Rogers, A. L. & Stoneking, M. (1993). The genetic structure of ancient human populations. Curr. Anthropol. 34, 483-496.
58. Harrington, C. R. (1992). The Year Without a Summer? Ottawa: Canadian Museum of Nature.
59. Hickson, R. E. & Cann, R. L. (1997). Mhc allelic diversity and modern human origins. J. Mol. Evol. 45, 589-598.
60. Holliday, T. W. (1997). Body proportions in Late Pleistocene Europe and modern human origins. J. hum. Evol. 32, 423-447.
61. Horai, S., Hayasaka, K., Kondo, K., Tsugane, K. & Takahata, N. (1995). Recent African origin of modern humans revealed by complete sequences of hominoid mitochondrial DNAs. Proc. natn. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 92, 532-536.
62. Howells, W. W. (1976). Explaining modern man: evolutionists versus migrationists. J. hum. Evol. 5, 477-495.
63. Huang, W., Ciochon, R., Gu, Y., Larick, R., Fang, Q., Schwarcz, H., Yonge, C., de Vos, J. & Rink, W. (1995). Early Homo and associated artifacts from Asia. Nature 378, 275-278.
64. Hublin, J-J., Spoor, F., Braun, B., Zonneveld, F. & Condemi, S. (1996). A late neanderthal associated with Upper Palaeolithic artefacts. Nature 381, 224-226.
65. Huff, W. D., Bergström, S. M. & Kolata, D. R. (1992). Gigantic Ordovician volcanic ash fall in North America and Europe: biological, tectonomagmatic, and event-stratigraphic significance. Geology 20, 875-878.
66. Jones, J. S. & Rouhani, S. (1986). How small was the bottleneck? Nature 319, 449-450.
67. Jorde, L. B., Bamshad, M. J., Watkins, W. S., Zenger, R., Fraley, A. E., Krakowiak, P. A., Carpenter, K. D., Soodyall, H., Jenkins, T. & Rogers, A. R. (1995). Origins and affinities of modern humans: a comparison of mitochondrial and nuclear genetic data. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 57, 523-538.
68. Jorde, L. B., Rogers, A. R., Bamshad, M., Watkins, W. S., Krakowiak, P., Sung, S., Kere, J. & Harpending, H. C. (1997). Microsatellite diversity and the demographic history of modern humans. Proc. natn. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 94, 3100-3103.
69. Jouzel, J. (1994). Ice cores north and south. Nature 372, 612-613.
70. Kidwell, S. M. & Flessa, K. W. (1995). The quality of the fossil record: populations, species, and communities. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 26, 269-299.
71. Kingdon, J. (1993). Self-Made Man and his Undoing. London: Simon & Schuster.
72. Klein, J., Takahata, N. & Ayala, F. J. (1993). MHC polymorphisms and human origins. Sci. Am. 269(6), 78-83.
73. Klein, R. G. (1989a). The Human Career. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
74. Klein, R. G. (1989b). Biological and behavioral perspectives on modern human origins in southern Africa. In (P. Mellars & C. B. Stringer, Eds) The Human Revolution. Behavioral and biological perspectives on the origins of modern humans, pp. 529-546. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
75. Klein, R. G. (1992). The archeology of modern human origins. Evol. Anthrop. 1, 5-14.
76. Klein, R. G. (1995). Anatomy, behavior, and modern human origins. J. Wld. Prehist. 9, 167-198.
77. Koslowski, J. K. (1988). Transition from the Middle to the early Upper Paleolithic in central Europe and the Balkans. In (J. F. Hoffecker & C. A. Wolf, Eds) The Early Upper Paleolithic: Evidence from Europe and the Near East. BAR International Series, 437, pp. 529-546.
78. Krings, M., Stone, A., Schmilz, R. W., Krainitzki, H., Stoneking, M. & Pääbo, S. (1997). Neandertal DNA sequences and the origin of modern humans. Cell 90, 19-30.
79. Lahr, M. (1996). The Evolution of Modern Human Diversity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
80. Lahr, M. & Foley, R. (1994). Multiple dispersals and modern human origins. Evolutionary Anthrop. 3, 48-60.
81. Larick, R. & Ciochon, R. L. (1996). The African emergence and early Asian dispersals of the genus Homo. Am. Scient. 84, 538-551.
82. Lewontin, R. C. (1972). The apportionment of human diversity. Evolutionary Biol. 6, 381-398.
83. Manderscheid, E. J. & Rogers, A. R. (1996). Genetic admixture in the Late Pleistocene. Am. J. phys. Anthrop. 100, 1-5.
84. Manega, P. C. (1993). Geochronology, Geochemistry and Isotopic Study of the Plio-Pleistocene Hominid Sites and the Ngorongoro Volcanic Highlands in Northern Tanzania. PhD. dissertation, University of Colorado, Boulder. Ann Arbor: University Microfilms International.
85. Marjoram, P. & Donnelly, P. (1994). Pairwise comparisons of mitochondrial DNA sequences in subdivided populations and implications for human evolution. Genetics 136, 673-683.
86. Marks, A. E. (1983). The Middle to Upper Paleolithic transition in the Levant. Adv. Wld. Archaeol. 2, 51-98.
87. Martin, R. E. (1993). Time and taphonomy: actualistic evidence for time-averaging of benthic foram iniferal assemblages. In (S. M. Kidwell & A. K. Behrensmeyer, Eds) Taphonomic Approaches to Time Resolution in Fossil Assemblages, pp. 34-56. Paleontological Society, Short Courses in Paleontology, No. 6. Knoxville: University of Tennessee.
88. Martinson, D. G., Pisias, N. G., Hays, J. D., Imbrie, J., Moore, T. C., Jr & Shackleton, N. J. (1987). Age dating and the orbital theory of the ice ages: development of a high-resolution 0 to 300,000-year chronostratigraphy. Quat. Res. 27, 1-29.
89. Mayr, E. (1970). Populations, Species, and Evolution. Cambridge: Belknap Press, Harvard University Press.
90. McBurney, C. B. M. (1967). The Haua Fteah. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
91. Mehlman, M. J. (1989). Late Quaternary Archaeological Sequences in Northern Tanzania. PhD Dissertation. Urbana: University of Illinois.
92. Mehlman, M. J. (1991). Context for the emergence of modern Man in eastern Africa: some new Tanzanian evidence. In (J. D. Clark, Ed.) Cultural Beginnings, pp. 177-196. Bonn: Dr. Rudolf Habelt GMBH.
93. Mercier, N., Valladas, H. & Valladas, G. (1995). Flint thermoluminescence dates from the CFR laboratory at GIF: contributions to the study of the Middle Paleolithic. Quat. Sci. Rev. 14, 351-364.
94. Morin, P. A., Moore, J. J., Chakraborty, R., Jin, L., Goodall, J. & Woodruff, D. S. (1994). Kin selection, social structure, gene flow, and the evolution of chimpanzees. Science 265, 1193-1201.
95. Mountain, J. L. & Cavalli-Sforza, L. L. (1997). Multilocus genotypes, a tree of individuals, and human evolutionary history. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 61, 701-718.
96. Nei, M., Maruyama, T. & Chakraborty, R. (1975). The bottleneck effect and genetic variability of populations. Evolution 29, 1-10.
97. Nei, M. & Roychoudhury, A. K. (1993). Evolutionary relationships among human populations on a global scale. Mol. Biol. Evol. 10, 927-943.
98. O'Brien, S. J., Wildt, D. E., Bush, M., Caro, T. M., FitzGibbons, C., Aggundey, I. & Leakey, R. E. (1987). East African cheetahs: evidence for two population bottlenecks? Proc. natn. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 84, 508-511.
99. Penny, D., Steel, M., Waddell, P. J. & Hendy, M. D. (1995). Improved analysis of human mtDNA sequences support a recent African origin for Homo sapiens. Mol. Biol. Evol. 12, 863-882.
100. Potts, R. (1996). Humanity's Descent. The Consequences of Ecological Instability. New York: William Morrow.
101. Ramaswamy, V. (1992). Explosive start to the last ice age. Nature 359, 14.
102. Rampino, M. R. & Ambrose, S. H. (in press). Volcanic winter in the Garden of Eden: the Toba supereruption and the Late Pleistocene human population crash. In (G. Heiken & F. McCoy, Eds) Volcanic hazards and Disasters in Human Affairs. Geological Society of America Special Publication Series.
103. Rampino, M. R. & Self, S. (1992). Volcanic winter and accelerated glaciation following the Toba supereruption. Nature 359, 50-52.
104. Rampino, M. R. & Self, S. (1993). Climate-volcanism feedback and the Toba eruption of ∼ 74,000 years ago. Quat. Res. 40, 269-280.
105. Rampino, M. R., Self, S. & Stothers, R. B. (1988). Volcanic winters. Ann. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 16, 73-99.
106. 39Ar dating into the historical realm: calibration against Pliny the Younger. Science 277, 1279-1230.
107. Relethford, J. H. (1994). Craniometric variation in modern human populations. Am. J. phys. Anthrop. 95, 53-62.
108. Relethford, J. H. (1995). Genetics and modern human origins. Evol. Anthrop. 4, 53-63.
109. Relethford, J. H. (1997). Mutation rate and excess African heterozygosity. Hum. Biol. 69, 785-792.
110. Relethford, J. H. & Harpending, H. C. (1994). Craniometric variation, genetic theory, and modern human origins. Am. J. phys. Anthrop. 95, 249-270.
111. Relethford, J. H. & Harpending, H. C. (1995). Ancient differences in population size can mimic a recent African origin of modern humans. Curr. Anthropol. 36, 667-674.
112. Rightmire, G. P. (1997). Deep roots for the Neanderthals. Nature 389, 917-918.
113. Rogers, A. R. (1992). Errors introduced by the infinite sites model. Mol Biol Evol. 9, 1181-1184.
114. Rogers, A. R. (1995). Genetic evidence for a Pleistocene population explosion. Evolution 49, 608-615.
115. Rogers, A. R. & Harpending, H. C. (1992). Population growth makes waves in the distribution of pairwise genetic differences. Mol. Biol. Evol. 9, 552-569.
116. Rogers, A. R. & Jorde, L. (1995). Genetic evidence on modern human origins. Hum. Biol 67, 1-36.
117. Rose, W. I. & Chesner, C. A. (1990). Worldwide dispersal of ash and gases from earth's largest known eruption: Toba, Sumatra, 75 ka. Palaeogeog. Palaeoclimato. Palaeoecol 89, 269-275.
118. Roy, K., Valentine, J. W., Jablonski, D. & Kidwell, S. M. (1996). Scales of climatic variability and time averaging in Pleistocene biotas: implications for ecology and evolution. TREE 11, 458-463.
119. Ruvolo, M., Zehr, S., von Dornum, M., Pan, D., Chang, B. & Lin, J. (1993). Mitochondrial COII sequences and modern human origins. Mol. Biol. Evol 10, 1115-1135.
120. Schiffelbein, P. (1984). Effect of benthic mixing on the information content of deep-sea stratigraphical signals. Nature 311, 651-653.
121. Schindel, D. E. (1982). Resolution analysis: a new approach to the gaps in the fossil record. Paleobiol. 8, 340-353.
122. Schwarcz, H. P. (1986). Geochronology and isotopic geochemistry of speleothem. In (P. Fritz & J-Ch Fontes, Eds) Handbook of Environmental Isotope Geochemistry, Vol. 2, The Terrestrial Environment, B, pp. 271-303. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
123. Schwartz, J. H. & Tattersall, I. (1996). Significance of some previously unrecognized apomorphies in the nasal region of Homo neanderthalensis. Proc. natn. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 93, 10,852-10,854.
124. Sherry, S., Rogers, A. R., Harpending, H., Soodyall, H., Jenkins, T. & Stoneking, M. (1994). Mismatch distributions of mtDNA reveal recent human population expansions. Hum. Biol. 66, 761-775.
125. Sherry, S. T., Harpending, H. C., Batzer, M. A. & Stoneking, M. (1997). Alu evolution in human populations: Using the coalescent to estimate effective population size. Genetics 147, 1977-1982.
126. Sigurdsson, H. (1990). Assessment of the atmospheric impact of volcanic eruptions. In (V. L. Sharpton & P. D. Ward, Eds) Global Catastrophes in Earth History, pp. 99-110. Geological Society of America Special Paper 247.
127. Sigurdsson, H. & Carey, S. (1988). The far reach of Tambora. Nat. Hist. 97(6), 66-72.
128. Slatkin, M. & Hudson, R. B. (1991). Pairwise comparison of mitochondrial DNA sequences in stable and exponentially growing populations. Genetics 129, 555-562.
129. Smith, F. H. (1992). The role of continuity in modern human origins. In (G. Bräuer & F. H. Smith, Eds) Continuity or Replacement. Controversies in Homo sapiens Evolution, pp. 145-156. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema.
130. Soffer, O. & Gamble, C. (1990). The World at 18,000 BP, Vol. 1, High Latitudes. London: Unwin Hyman.
131. Stoneking, M. (1993). DNA and recent human evolution. Evol. Anthrop. 2, 60-73.
132. Stoneking, M., Sherry, S. T., Redd, A. J. & Vigilant, L. (1992). New approaches to dating suggest a recent age for the human mtDNA ancestor. Phil. Trans. R. Soc., Lond. B337, 167-175.
133. Stringer, C. & Andrews, P. (1988). Genetic and fossil evidence for the evolution of modern humans. Science 239, 1263-1268.
134. Swisher, C. G. III, Curtis, G. H., Jacob, T., Getty, A. G., Suprijo, A. & Widiasmoro (1994). Age of the earliest known hominids in Java. Science 263, 1118-1121.
135. Swisher, C. G. III, Rink, W. J., Anton, S. C., Schwarcz, H. P., Curtis, G. H., Suprijo, A. & Widiasmoro (1996). Latest Homo erectus of Java: potential contemporaneity with Homo sapiens in southeast Asia. Science 274, 1870-1874.
136. Takahata, N. (1993). Allelic genealogy and human evolution. Mol Biol Evol 10, 2-22.
137. Takahata, N., Satta, Y. & Klein, J. (1995). Divergence time and population size in the lineage leading to modern humans. Theor. Pop. Biol 48, 198-221.
138. Templeton, A. R. (1993). The "Eve" hypothesis: a genetic critique and reanalysis. Am. Anthropol 95, 51-72.
139. Templeton, A. R. (1996). Gene lineages and human origins. Science 272, 1363.
140. Tchernov, E. (1992a). Biochronology, paleoecology, and dispersal events of hominids in the southern Levant. In (T. Akazawa, K. Aoki & T. Kimura, Eds) The Evolution and Dispersal of Modern Humans in Asia, pp. 149-188. Tokyo: Hokusen-Sha.
141. Tchernov, E. (1992b). Eurasian-African biotic exchanges through the Levantine corridor during the Neogene and Quaternary. In (W. v. Koenigswald & L. Werdelin, Eds) Mammalian Migration and Dispersal Events in the European Quaternary. Cour. Forsch. Senckenberg 153, 103-123.
142. Tishkoff, S. A., Dietzsch, E., Speed, Pakstis, A. J., Kidd, J. R., Cheung, K., Bonné-Tamir, B., Santachiara-Benerecetti, A. S., Moral, P., Krings, M., Pääbo, S., Watson, E., Risch, N., Jenkins, T. & Kidd, K. K. (1996). Global patterns of linkage disequilibrium at the CD4 locus and modern human origins. Science 271, 1380-1387.
143. Tishkoff, S. A., Kidd, K. K. & Risch, N. (1996). Interpretations of Multiregional evolution. Science 274, 706-707.
144. Trinkaus, E. (1981). Neanderthal limb proportions and cold adaptations. In (C. B. Stringer, Ed.) Aspects of Human Evolution, pp. 187-224. London: Taylor and Francis.
145. Trinkaus, E. (1989). The Upper Pleistocene transition. In (E. Trinkaus, Ed.) The Emergence of Modem Humans, pp. 42-66. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
146. Turbón, D., Pérez-Pérez, A. & Stringer, C. B. (1997). A multivariate analysis of Pleistocene hominids: testing hypotheses of European origins. J. hum. Evol. 32, 449-468.
147. van der Kaars, W. A. (1991). Palynology of eastern Indonesian marine piston cores: a Late Quaternary vegetational and climatic record for Australasia. Palaeogeog. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 85, 239-302.
148. van der Kaars, W. A. & Dam, M. A. C. (1995). A 135,000-year record of vegetational and climatic change from the Bandung area, west Java, Indonesia. Palaeogeog. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 117, 55-72.
149. van der Kaars, W. A. & Dam, M. A. C. (1997). Vegetation and climate change in west-Java, Indonesia, during the last 135,000 years. Quat. Int. 37, 73-80.
150. Van Peer, P., Vermeersch, P. M., Moyersons, J. & Van Neer, W. (1996). Palaeolithic sequence of Sodmein Cave, Red Sea Mountains, Egypt. In (G. Pwiti & R. Soper, Eds) Aspects of African Archaeology, pp. 149-156. Harare: University of Zimbabwe Publications.
151. Van Noten, F. (1982). The Archaeology of Central Africa. Graz: Akademische Druck.
152. Vermeersch, P. M, Paulissen, E., Gijselings, G., Otte, M., Thomas, A., Van Peer, P. & Lauwers, R. (1984). 33,000-yr old chert mining site and related Homo in the Egyptian Nile Valley. Nature 309, 342-344.
153. Vigilant, L., Stoneking, M., Harpending, H., Hawkes, K. & Wilson, A. C. (1991). African populations and the evolution of human mitochondrial DNA. Science 253, 1503-1508.
154. Waddle, D. (1994). Matrix correlation tests support a single origin for modern humans. Nature 368, 452-454.
155. Wainscoat, J. S., Hill, A. V. S., Boyce, A. L., Flint, J., Hernandez, M., Thein, S. L., Old, J. M., Lynch, J. R., Falusi, A. G., Weatherall, D. J. & Clegg, J. B. (1986). Evolutionary relationships of human populations from an analysis of nuclear DNA polymorphisms. Nature 319, 419-493.
156. Walker, N. J. (1995). Late Pleistocene and Holocene hunter-gatherers of the Matopos: an archaeological study of change and continuity in Zimbabwe. Studies in African Archaeology 10. Uppsala: Societas Archaeologica Uppsala.
157. Watson, E., Forster, P., Richards, M. & Bandelt, H.-J. (1997). Mitochondrial footprints of human expansions in Africa. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 61, 691-704.
158. Webb, T., III. (1993). Constructing the past from Late-Quaternary pollen data: temporal resolution and a zoom lens space-time perspective. In (S. M. Kidwell & A. K. Behrensmeyer, Eds) Taphonomic Approaches to Time Resolution in Fossil Assemblages, pp. 79-101. Paleontological Society, Short Courses in Paleontology, No. 6. Knoxville: University of Tennessee.
159. Wendorf, F. & Schild, R. (1992). The Middle Paleolithic of North Africa: a status report. In (F. Klees & R. Kuper, Eds) New Light on the Northeast African Past, pp. 40-78. Africa Praehistorica 5. Köln: Heinrich-Barth-Institut.
160. Woillard, G. M. (1978). Grand Pile peat bog: a continuous pollen record for the last 140,000 years. Quat. Res. 9, 1-21.
161. Woillard, G. M. & Mook, W. G. (1982). Carbon-14 dates at Grande Pile: correlation of land and sea chronologies. Science 215, 159-161.
162. Wolpoff, M. (1989). Multiregional evolution: the fossil alternative to Eden. In (P. Mellars & C. Stringer, Eds) The Human Revolution, pp. 62-108. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
163. Wolpoff, M. (1996). Interpretations of Multiregional evolution. Science 274, 704-706.
164. Yapp, C. J. & Epstein, S. (1982). Climatic implications of D/H ratios of meteoric water over North America (9500-22,000 BP) as inferred from ancient wood cellulose C-H hydrogen. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 34, 333-350.
165. Zielinski, G., Mayewski, P. A., Meeker, L. D., Whitlow, S. & Twickler, M. S. (1996a). A 110,000-yr record of explosive volcanism from the GISP2 (Greenland) ice core. Quat. Res. 45, 109-118.
166. Zielinski, G., Mayewski, P. A., Meeker, L. D., Whitlow, S. & Twickler, M. S. (1996b). Potential impact of the Toba mega-eruption ∼71,000 years ago. Geophys. Res. Lett. 23, 837-840.