Danger, Disease, and the Nature of Prejudice(s)

Advances in Experimental Social Psychology

Volumn 46, Issue , 2012, Pages 1-54

  Schaller, Mark ^a   Neuberg, Steven L ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA   (Canada)

^b ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Disgust; Evolution; Fear; Infectious disease; Intergroup relations; Person perception; Prejudice; Social cognition; Stereotyping; Threat

Indexed keywords

EID: 84862507341     PISSN: 00652601     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-394281-4.00001-5     Document Type: Chapter

References (155)

1. Ackerman J.M., Becker D.V., Sorensen C.R., Sasaki T., Neuberg S.L., Kenrick D.T. A pox on the mind: Disjunction of attention and memory in the processing of physical disfigurement. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 2009, 45:478-485.
2. Ackerman J.M., Shapiro J.R., Neuberg S.L., Kenrick D.T., Becker D.V., Griskevicius V., et al. They all look the same to me (unless they're angry): From out-group homogeneity to out-group heterogeneity. Psychological Science 2006, 17:836-840.
3. Adorno T.W., Frenkel-Brunswick E., Levinson D.J., Sanford R.N. The authoritarian personality 1950, Harper & Row, New York.
4. Alcock J. Animal behavior: An evolutionary approach 2005, Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, MA. 8th ed.
5. Allport G.W. The nature of prejudice 1954, Addison-Wesley, Cambridge, MA.
6. Altemeyer B. Enemies of freedom 1988, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.
7. Altemeyer B. The other "authoritarian personality". Advances in experimental social psychology 1998, Vol. 30:48-92. Academic Press, New York.
8. Aronson E., Blaney N., Stephan C., Sikes J., Snapp M. The jigsaw classroom 1978, Sage, Beverly Hills, CA.
9. Barkow J.H., Cosmides L., Tooby J. The adapted mind: Evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture 1992, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
10. Becker D.V., Anderson U.S., Neuberg S.L., Maner J.K., Shapiro J.R., Ackerman J.M., et al. More memory bang for the attentional buck: Self-protection goals enhance encoding efficiency for potentially threatening males. Social Psychological and Personality Science 2010, 1:182-189.
11. Becker D.V., Anderson U.S., Mortensen C.R., Neufeld S.L., Neel R. The face in the crowd effect unconfounded: Happy faces, not angry faces, are more efficiently detected in single- and multiple-target visual search tasks. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 2011, 140:637-659.
12. Blascovich J., Mendes W.B., Hunter S.B., Lickel B., Kowai-Bell N. Perceiver threat in social interactions with stigmatized others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 2001, 80:253-267.
13. Brewer M.B. A dual process model of impression formation. Advances in social cognition 1988, Vol. 1:1-36. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ. T.K. Srull, R.S. Wyer (Eds.).
14. Brewer M.B. The psychology of prejudice: Ingroup love or outgroup hate. Journal of Social Issues 1999, 55:429-444.
15. Brewer M.B., Alexander M.G. Intergroup emotions and images. From prejudice to intergroup emotions: Differentiated reactions to social groups 2002, 209-225. Psychology Press, New York. D.M. Mackie, E.R. Smith (Eds.).
16. Brown F.A. Persistent activity rhythms in the oyster. American Journal of Physiology 1954, 178:510-514.
17. Brown J.D., Collins R.L., Schmidt G.W. Self-esteem and direct versus indirect forms of self-enhancement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1988, 55:445-453.
18. Bugental D.B., Hehman J.A. Ageism: A review of research and policy implications. Social Issues and Policy Review 2007, 1:173-216.
19. Buss D.M. Evolutionary social psychology: Prospects and pitfalls. Motivation and Emotion 1990, 14:265-286.
20. Buss D.M. The handbook of evolutionary psychology 2005, Wiley, Hoboken, NJ.
21. Butz D.A., Yogeeswaran K. A new threat in the air: Macroeconomic threat increases prejudice against Asian Americans. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 2011, 47:22-27.
22. Campbell D.T. Legal and primary-group social controls. Journal of Social and Biological Structures 1982, 5:431-438.
23. Carpenter C.R. Aggressive behavioral systems. Primate aggression, territoriality, and xenophobia 1974, 459-496. Academic Press, New York. R.L. Holloway (Ed.).
24. Chagnon N.A. Life histories, blood revenge, and warfare in a tribal population. Science 1988, 239:985-992.
25. Chagnon N.A. Yanomamö: The last days of Eden 1992, Harcourt Brace, New York.
26. Chance J.E., Goldstein A.G. The other-race effect and eyewitness identification. Psychological issues in eyewitness identification 1996, 153-176. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ. S.L. Sporer, R.S. Malpass (Eds.).
27. Cheney D.L. Interactions and relationships between groups. Primate societies 1986, 267-281. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. B.B. Smuts, D.L. Cheney, R.M. Seyfarth, R.W. Wrangham, T.T. Struhsaker (Eds.).
28. Conway L.G., Schaller M. On the verifiability of evolutionary psychological theories: An analysis of the psychology of scientific persuasion. Personality and Social Psychology Review 2002, 6:152-166.
29. Cottrell C.A., Neuberg S.L. From threat to emotion to action:A sociofunctional analysis of intergroup interactions. Paper presented at the symposium ofthe Exploring the Complexity of Intergroup Emotions, Beliefs, and Behavior: FourTheoretical Alternatives. annual convention of the Society for Personality and SocialPsychology 2004, January, Austin, TX.
30. Cottrell C.A., Neuberg S.L. Different emotional reactions to different groups: A sociofunctional threat-based approach to 'prejudice'. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 2005, 88:770-789.
31. Cottrell C.A., Richards D.A.R., Neuberg S.L. A threat-based approach tounderstanding the intergroup milieu: Textured threat perceptions, prejudices, and discriminatoryinclinations in the interethnic matrix. JManuscript in preparation 2012.
32. Cottrell C.A., Richards D.A.R., Nichols A.L. Predicting policy attitudes from general prejudice versus specific intergroup emotions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 2010, 46:247-254.
33. Crandall C.S. Prejudice against fat people: Ideology and self-interest. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1994, 66:882-894.
34. Crandall C.S., Eshleman A. The justification-suppression model of experienced and expressed prejudice. Psychological Bulletin 2003, 129:414-446.
35. Crandall C.S., Moriarty D. Physical illness stigma and social rejection. British Journal of Social Psychology 1995, 34:67-83.
36. Crawford C., Krebs D. Foundations of evolutionary psychology 2008, Erlbaum, New York.
37. Crocker J., Luhtanen R. Collective self-esteem and intergroup bias. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1990, 58:60-67.
38. Crocker J., Major B. Social stigma and self-esteem: The self-protective properties of stigma. Psychological Review 1989, 96:608-630.
39. Curtis V., de Barra M., Aunger R. Disgust as an adaptive system for disease avoidance behaviour. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 2011, 366:389-401.
40. Darwin C. On the origin of species 1859, John Murray, London.
41. Dugatkin L.A. Cooperation among animals: An evolutionary perspective 1997, Oxford University Press, New York.
42. Duncan L.A., Schaller M. Prejudicial attitudes toward older adults may be exaggerated when people feel vulnerable to infectious disease: Evidence and implications. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy 2009, 9:97-115.
43. Eibl-Eibesfeldt I. The myth of the aggression-free hunter and gatherer society. Primate aggression, territoriality, and xenophobia 1974, 435-457. Academic Press, New York. R.L. Holloway (Ed.).
44. Ellsworth P.C. Direct gaze as a social stimulus: The example of aggression. Nonverbal communication of aggression 1975, 53-75. Plenum, New York. P. Pliner, L. Krames, T. Alloway (Eds.).
45. Esses V.M., Dovidio J.F., Jackson L.M., Armstrong T.L. The immigration dilemma: The role of perceived group competition, ethnic prejudice, and national identity. Journal of Social Issues 2002, 57:389-412.
46. Esses V.M., Haddock G., Zanna M.P. Values, stereotypes, and emotions as determinants of intergroup attitudes. Affect, cognition, and stereotyping: Interactive processes in group perception 1993, 137-166. Academic Press, San Diego. D.M. Mackie, D.L. Hamilton (Eds.).
47. Fabrega H. Earliest phases in the evolution of sickness and healing. Medical Anthropology Quarterly 1997, 11:26-55.
48. Faulkner J., Schaller M., Park J.H., Duncan L.A. Evolved disease-avoidance mechanisms and contemporary xenophobic attitudes. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations 2004, 7:333-353.
49. Fein S., Spencer S.J. Prejudice as self-image maintenance: Affirming the self through derogating others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1997, 73:31-44.
50. Ferguson R.B. Warfare, culture, and environment 1984, Academic Press, Orlando, FL.
51. Fessler D.M.T., Eng S.J., Navarrete C.D. Elevated disgust sensitivity in the first trimester of pregnancy: Evidence supporting the compensatory prophylaxis hypothesis. Evolution and Human Behavior 2005, 26:344-351.
52. Fincher C.L., Thornhill R., Murray D.R., Schaller M. Pathogen prevalence predicts human cross-cultural variability in individualism/collectivism. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 2008, 275:1279-1285.
53. Fiske S.T., Cuddy A.J.C., Glick P., Xu J. A model of (often mixed) stereotype content: Competence and warmth respectively follow from perceived status and competition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 2002, 82:878-902.
54. Fiske S.T., Neuberg S.L. A continuum of impression formation, from category-based to individuating processes: Influences of information and motivation on attention and interpretation. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 1990, 23:1-74.
55. Flaxman S.M., Sherman P.W. Morning sickness: A mechanisms for protecting mother and embryo. The Quarterly Review of Biology 2000, 75:113-148.
56. Gaertner S.L., Dovidio J.F. Reducing intergroup bias: The common ingroup identity model 2000, Psychology Press, Philadelphia.
57. Gigerenzer G., Todd P.M., the ABC Research Group Simple heuristics that make us smart 1999, Oxford University Press, New York.
58. Gilovich T., Griffin D., Kahneman D. Heuristics and biases: The psychology of intuitive judgment 2002, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
59. Goldhagen D. Hitler's willing executioners 1996, Knopf, New York.
60. Goodall J. The chimpanzees of Gombe 1986, Belknap Press, Cambridge, MA.
61. Gregor T. Uneasy peace: Intertribal relations in Brazil's Upper Xingu. The anthropology of war 1990, 105-124. Cambridge University Press, New York. J. Haas (Ed.).
62. Grillon C., Pellowski M., Merikangas K.R., Davis M. Darkness facilitates acoustic startle reflex in humans. Biological Psychiatry 1997, 42:453-460.
63. Griskevicius V., Goldstein N.J., Mortensen C.R., Cialdini R.B., Kenrick D.T. Going along versus going alone: When fundamental motives facilitate strategic nonconformity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 2006, 91:281-294.
64. Gross J.J., Levenson R.W. Emotion elicitation using films. Cognition and Emotion 1995, 9:87-108.
65. Hamermesh D.S., Biddle J.E. Beauty and the labor market. American Economic Review 1994, 84:1174-1194.
66. Haas J. The anthropology of war 1990, Cambridge University Press, New York.
67. Hart B.L. Behavioral adaptations to pathogens and parasites: Five strategies. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 1990, 14:273-294.
68. Hart B.L. Behavioural defences in animals against pathogens and parasites: Parallels with the pillars of medicine in humans. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 2011, 366:3406-3417.
69. Hasegawa T. Sex differences in ranging patterns. The chimpanzees of the Mahale mountains 1990, 99-114. University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo. T. Nishida (Ed.).
70. Haselton M.G., Nettle D. The paranoid optimist: An integrative evolutionary model of cognitive biases. Personality and Social Psychology Review 2006, 10:47-66.
71. Helzer E.G., Pizarro D.A. Dirty liberals! Reminders of physical cleanliness influence moral and political attitudes. Psychological Science 2011, 22:517-522.
72. Herek G.M. Stigma, prejudice, and violence against lesbians and gay men. Homosexuality: Research implications for public policy 1991, 60-80. Sage, Newbury Park, CA. C. Gonsiorek, J.D. Weinrich (Eds.).
73. Herek G.M., Capitaniato J.P. AIDS stigma and sexual prejudice. American Behavioral Scientist 1999, 42:1130-1147.
74. Hewstone M., Rubin M., Willis H. Intergroup bias. Annual Review of Psychology 2002, 53:575-604.
75. Houston V., Bull R. Do people avoid sitting next to someone who is facially disfigured. European Journal of Social Psychology 1994, 24:279-284.
76. Hovland C.I., Sears R.R. Minor studies of aggression: VI. Correlation of lynchings with economic indices. Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied 1940, 9:301-310.
77. Huang J.Y., Sedlovskaya A., Ackerman J.M., Bargh J.A. Immunizing against prejudice: Effects of disease protection on outgroup attitudes. Psychological Science 2011, 22:1550-1556.
78. Izard C.E. The psychology of emotions 1991, Plenum Press, New York.
79. Kahneman D., Slovic P., Tversky A. Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases 1982, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
80. Kanwisher N., McDermott J., Chun M.M. The fusiform face area: A module in human extrastriate cortex specialized for face perception. Journal of Neuroscience 1997, 17:4302-4311.
81. Kavaliers M., Choleris E. Sociality, pathogen avoidance, and the neuropeptides oxytocin and arginine vasopressin. Psychological Science 2011, 22:1367-1374.
82. Kelly R.L. The foraging spectrum: Diversity in hunter-gatherer lifeways 1995, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.
83. Kenrick A.C., Shapiro J.R., Neuberg S.L. Do parental bonds break anti-fatstereotypes? Work ethic, disease concerns, and parents' beliefs about their heavy-weight children 2012, Unpublished manuscript, Princeton University.
84. Kiesecker J.M., Skelly D.K., Beard K.H., Preisser E. Behavioral reduction of infection risk. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 1999, 96:9165-9168.
85. Kingsolver B. High tide in Tucson: Essays from now or never 1995, HarperCollins, New York.
86. Kurzban R., Leary M.R. Evolutionary origins of stigmatization: The functions of social exclusion. Psychological Bulletin 2001, 127:187-208.
87. Kurzban R., Neuberg S.L. Managing ingroup and outgroup relationships. Handbook of evolutionary psychology 2005, 653-675. John Wiley & Sons, New York. D. Buss (Ed.).
88. Kurzban R., Tooby J., Cosmides L. Can race be erased? Coalitional computation and social categorization. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2001, 98:15387-15392.
89. Little A.C., DeBruine L.M., Jones B.C. Exposure to visual cues of pathogen contagion changes preferences for masculinity and symmetry in opposite-sex faces. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 2011, 278:2032-2039.
90. Mackie D.M., Devos T., Smith E.R. Intergroup emotions: Explaining offensive action tendencies in an intergroup context. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 2000, 79:602-616.
91. Mahajan N., Martinez M.A., Gutierrez N.L., Diesendruck G., Banaji M.R., Santos L.R. The evolution of intergroup bias: Perceptions and attitudes in rhesus macaques. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 2011, 100:387-405.
92. Maner J.K., Kenrick D.T., Becker D.V., Robertson T.E., Hofer B., Neuberg S.L., et al. Functional projection: How fundamental social motives can bias interpersonal perception. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 2005, 88:63-78.
93. Markel H. When germs travel. The American Scholar 1999, 68:61-69.
94. Markel H., Stern A.M. The foreignness of germs: The persistent association of immigrants and disease in American society. The Milbank Quarterly 2002, 80:757-788.
95. McCann R.M., Ota H., Giles H., Caraker R. Perceptions of intra- and intergenerational communication among young adults in Thailand, Japan, and the U.S.A. Communication Reports 2003, 16:1-23.
96. Mikulincer M., Shaver P.R. Attachment theory and intergroup bias: Evidence that priming the secure base schema attenuates negative reactions to out-groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 2001, 81:97-115.
97. Mikulincer M., Shaver P.R. Boosting attachment security to promote mental health, prosocial values, and inter-group tolerance. Psychological Inquiry 2007, 18:139-156.
98. Miller S.L., Maner J.K. Sick body, vigilant mind: The biological immune system activates the behavioral immune system. Psychological Science 2011, 22:1467-1471.
99. Mortensen C.R., Becker D.V., Ackerman J.M., Neuberg S.L., Kenrick D.T. Infection breeds reticence: The effects of disease salience on self-perceptions of personality and behavioral avoidance tendencies. Psychological Science 2010, 21:440-447.
100. Murray D.R., Schaller M. Threat(s) and conformity deconstructed: Perceived threat of infectious disease and its implications for conformist attitudes and behavior. European Journal of Social Psychology 2012, 42:180-188.
101. Murray D.R., Trudeau R., Schaller M. On the origins of cultural differences in conformity: Four tests of the pathogen prevalence hypothesis. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 2011, 37:318-329.
102. Navarrete C.D., Fessler D.M.T., Eng S.J. Elevated ethnocentrism in the first trimester of pregnancy. Evolution and Human Behavior 2007, 28:60-65.
103. Navarrete C.D., Olsson A., Ho A., Mendes W., Thomsen L., Sidanius J. Fear extinction to an out-group face: The role of target gender. Psychological Science 2009, 20:155-158.
104. Navon L. Cultural notions versus social actions: The case of the socio-cultural history of leprosy in Thailand. Social Analysis 1996, 40:95-119.
105. Nesse R.M. Natural selection and the regulation of defenses: A signal detection analysis of the smoke detector principle. Evolution and Human Behavior 2005, 26:88-105.
106. Neuberg S.L., Kenrick D.T., Schaller M. Evolutionary social psychology. Handbook of social psychology 2010, Vol. 2:761-796. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 5th ed. S.T. Fiske, D.T. Gilbert, G. Lindzey (Eds.).
107. Neuberg S.L., Kenrick D.T., Schaller M. Human threat management systems: Self-protection and disease avoidance. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 2011, 35:1042-1051.
108. Neuberg S.L., Newsom J.T. Personal need for structure: Individual differences in the desire for simple structure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1993, 65:113-131.
109. Neuberg S.L., Smith D.M., Asher T. Why people stigmatize: Toward a biocultural framework. The social psychology of stigma 2000, 31-61. Guilford, New York. T.F. Heatherton, R.E. Kleck, M.R. Hebl, J.G. Hull (Eds.).
110. Noy D. Foreigners at Rome: Citizens and strangers 2000, Duckworth, London.
111. Oaten M., Stevenson R.J., Case T.I. Disgust as a disease-avoidance mechanism. Psychological Bulletin 2009, 135:303-321.
112. Oaten M., Stevenson R.J., Case T.I. Disease avoidance as a functional basis for stigmatization. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 2011, 366:3433-3452.
113. Olsson A., Ebert J.P., Banaji M.R., Phelps E.A. The role of social groups in the persistence of learned fear. Science 2005, 309:785-787.
114. Ostrom T.M., Sedikides C. Out-group homogeneity effects in natural and minimal groups. Psychological Bulletin 1992, 112:536-552.
115. Park J.H., Faulkner J., Schaller M. Evolved disease-avoidance processes and contemporary anti-social behavior: Prejudicial attitudes and avoidance of people with physical disabilities. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 2003, 27:65-87.
116. Park J.H., Schaller M., Crandall C.S. Pathogen-avoidance mechanisms and the stigmatization of obese people. Evolution and Human Behavior 2007, 28:410-414.
117. Pemberton M.B., Insko C.A., Schopler J. Memory for and experience of differential competitive behavior of individuals and groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1996, 71:953-966.
118. Pettigrew T.F. Generalized intergroup contact effects on prejudice. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 1997, 23:173-185.
119. Phelps E.A., O'Conner K.J., Cunningham W.A., Funayama E.S., Gatenby J.C., Gore J.C., et al. Performance on indirect measures of race evaluation predicts amygdala activation. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 2000, 12:729-738.
120. Pinker S. The blank slate 2003, Penguin, New York.
121. Plutchik R. Emotion: A psychoevolutionary synthesis 1980, Harper & Row, New York.
122. Pratto F., Sidanius J., Stallworth L.M., Malle B.F. Social dominance orientation: A personality variable predicting social and political attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1994, 67:741-763.
123. Robarchek C. Motivations and material causes: On the explanation of conflict and war. The anthropology of war 1990, 56-76. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. J. Haas (Ed.).
124. Roberts G. Why individual vigilance declines as group size increases. Animal Behaviour 1996, 51:1077-1086.
125. Roseman I.J., Wiest C., Swartz T.S. Phenomenology, behaviors, and goals differentiate discrete emotions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1994, 67:206-221.
126. Schaller M. The behavioural immune system and the psychology of human sociality. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 2011, 366:3418-3426.
127. Schaller M., Abeysinghe A.M.N.D. Geographical frame of reference and dangerous intergroup attitudes: A double-minority study in Sri Lanka. Political Psychology 2006, 27:615-631.
128. Schaller M., Duncan L.A. The behavioral immune system: Its evolution and social psychological implications. Evolution and the social mind: Evolutionary psychology and social cognition 2007, 293-307. Psychology Press, New York. J.P. Forgas, M.G. Haselton, W. von Hippel (Eds.).
129. Schaller M., Murray D.R. Pathogens, personality and culture: Disease prevalence predicts worldwide variability in sociosexuality, extraversion, and openness to experience. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 2008, 95:212-221.
130. Schaller M., Murray D.R. Infectious disease and the creation of culture. Advances in culture and psychology 2011, Vol. 1:99-151. Oxford University Press, New York. M. Gelfand, C.-Y. Chiu, Y.-Y. Hong (Eds.).
131. Schaller M., Neuberg S.L. Intergroup prejudices and intergroup conflicts. Foundations of evolutionary psychology 2008, 399-412. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ. C. Crawford, D.L. Krebs (Eds.).
132. Schaller M., Park J.H. The behavioral immune system (and why it matters). Current Directions in Psychological Science 2011, 20:99-103.
133. Schaller M., Park J.H., Faulkner J. Prehistoric dangers and contemporary prejudices. European Review of Social Psychology 2003, 14:105-137.
134. Schaller M., Park J.H., Kenrick D.T. Human evolution and social cognition. Oxford handbook of evolutionary psychology 2007, 491-504. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. R.I.M. Dunbar, L. Barrett (Eds.).
135. Schaller M., Park J.H., Mueller A. Fear of the dark: Interactive effects of beliefs about danger and ambient darkness on ethnic stereotypes. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 2003, 29:637-649.
136. Sherif M., Sherif C.W. Groups in harmony and tension 1953, Harper & Row, New York.
137. Sidanius J., Cling B.J., Pratto F. Ranking and linking behavior as a function of sex and gender: An exploration of alternative explanations. Journal of Social Issues 1991, 47:131-149.
138. Sidanius J., Pratto F. Social dominance: An intergroup theory of social hierarchy and oppression 1999, Cambridge University Press, New York.
139. Snyder M.L., Kleck R.E., Strenta A., Mentzer S.J. Avoidance of the handicapped: An attributional ambiguity analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1979, 37:2297-2306.
140. Southwick C.H., Siddiqi M.F., Farooqui M.Y., Pal B.C. Xenophobia among free-ranging rhesus groups in India. Primate aggression, territoriality, and xenophobia 1974, 185-212. Academic Press, New York. R.L. Holloway (Ed.).
141. Stangor C., Crandall C.S. Threat and the social construction of stigma. The social psychology of stigma 2000, 62-87. Guilford, New York. T.F. Heatherton, R.E. Kleck, M.R. Hebl, J.G. Hull (Eds.).
142. Stephan W. Reducing prejudice and stereotyping in the schools 1999, Teachers College Press, New York.
143. Stephan W.G., Stephan C.W. An integrated threat theory of prejudice. Reducing prejudice and discrimination 2000, 225-246. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ. S. Oskamp (Ed.).
144. Suedfeld P., Schaller M. Authoritarianism and the Holocaust: Some cognitive and affective implications. What social psychology can tell us about the Holocaust: Understanding perpetrator behavior 2002, 68-90. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. L.S. Newman, R. Erber (Eds.).
145. Tajfel H., Turner J.C. The social identity theory of intergroup conflict. Psychology of intergroup relations 1986, 7-24. Nelson-Hall, Chicago. S. Worchel, W.G. Austin (Eds.).
146. Tajfel H., Wilkes A.L. Classification and quantitative judgement. British Journal of Psychology 1963, 54:101-114.
147. Tooby J., Cosmides L. The explains the present: Emotional adaptations and the structure of ancestral environments. Ethology and Sociobiology 1990, 11:375-424.
148. Tybur J.M., Bryan A.D., Magnan R.E., Hooper A.E.C. Smells like safe sex: Olfactory pathogen primes increase intentions to use condoms. Psychological Science 2011, 22:478-480.
149. Welling L.L.M., Conway C.A., DeBruine L.M., Jones B.C. Perceived vulnerability to disease is positively related to the strength of preferences for apparent health in faces. Journal of Evolutionary Psychology 2007, 5:131-139.
150. Wilder D.A. The role of anxiety in facilitating stereotypic judgments of outgroup behavior. Affect, cognition, and stereotyping: Interactive processes in group perception 1993, 87-109. Academic Press, San Diego. D.M. Mackie, D.L. Hamilton (Eds.).
151. Wilson M.L., Wrangham R.W. Intergroup relations in chimpanzees. Annual Review of Anthropology 2003, 32:363-392.
152. Wirtz P., Wawra M. Vigilance and group size in Homo sapiens. Ethology 1986, 71:283-286.
153. Young S.G., Sacco D.F., Hugenberg K. Vulnerability to disease is associated with a domain-specific preference for symmetrical faces relative to symmetrical non-face stimuli. European Journal of Social Psychology 2011, 41:558-563.
154. Yuki M., Yokota K. The primal warrior: Outgroup threat priming enhances intergroup discrimination in men but not women. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 2009, 45:271-274.
155. Zebrowitz L.A., Montepare J. The ecological approach to person perception: Evolutionary roots and contemporary offshoots. Evolution and social psychology 2006, 81-113. Psychology Press, New York. M. Schaller, J.A. Simpson, D.T. Kenrick (Eds.).