Role of antihypertensive drugs in arterial 'de-stiffening' and central pulsatile hemodynamics

American Journal of Cardiovascular Drugs

Volumn 12, Issue 3, 2012, Pages 143-156

  Koumaras, Charalambos ^a   Tzimou, Maria ^a   Stavrinou, Eirini ^a   Griva, Theodora ^a   Gossios, Thomas D ^a   Katsiki, Niki ^b   Athyros, Vasilios G ^a   Mikhailidis, Dimitri P ^b   Karagiannis, Asterios ^a  

^a ARISTOTLE UNIVERSITY MEDICAL SCHOOL   (Greece)

^b ROYAL FREE AND UNIVERSITY COLLEGE MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

blood pressure; cardiovascular disorders; hypertension.

Indexed keywords

ALPHA INTEGRIN; AMLODIPINE; ANTIHYPERTENSIVE AGENT; ATENOLOL; CANDESARTAN; CAPTOPRIL; CARVEDILOL; ELASTIN; ENALAPRIL; ENDOTHELIN 1; EPLERENONE; EPROSARTAN; FELODIPINE; FIBRILLIN 1; FOSINOPRIL; HYDROCHLOROTHIAZIDE; IRBESARTAN; LERCANIDIPINE; LISINOPRIL; LOSARTAN; NITRENDIPINE; NITRIC OXIDE; OLMESARTAN; PERINDOPRIL; QUINAPRIL; RAMIPRIL; TELMISARTAN; TRANDOLAPRIL; UNINDEXED DRUG; VALSARTAN;

ARTERIAL STIFFNESS; ARTERY COMPLIANCE; ASCENDING AORTA; BLOOD PRESSURE; CENTRAL BLOOD PRESSURE; DIASTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE; DRUG EFFECT; FOLLOW UP; HEART RATE; HEART VENTRICLE EJECTION; HEMODYNAMICS; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; IMMUNOHISTOCHEMISTRY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PULSE PRESSURE; PULSE WAVE; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); REVIEW; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; SYSTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE; TREATMENT DURATION;

ANIMALS; ANTIHYPERTENSIVE AGENTS; BLOOD PRESSURE; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; HEMODYNAMICS; HUMANS; HYPERTENSION; VASCULAR STIFFNESS;

EID: 84861323191     PISSN: 11753277     EISSN: 1179187X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2165/11599040-000000000-00000     Document Type: Review

References (131)

1. Laurent S, Cockcroft J, Van Bortel L, et al. European Network for Noninvasive Investigation of Large Arteries. Expert consensus document on arterial stiffness: methodological issues and clinical applications. Eur Heart J 2006 Nov; 27 (21): 2588-605 (Pubitemid 44627304)
2. McEniery CM, Yasmin, McDonnell B, et al. Anglo-Cardiff Collaborative Trial Investigators. Central pressure: variability and impact of cardiovascular risk factors: the Anglo-Cardiff Collaborative Trial II. Hypertension 2008 Jun; 51 (6): 1476-82
3. Tziomalos K, Athyros VG, Karagiannis A, et al. Endothelial dysfunction in metabolic syndrome: prevalence, pathogenesis and management. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 2010 Feb; 20 (2): 140-6
4. Goch A, Banach M, Mikhailidis DP, et al. Endothelial dysfunction in patients with non complicated and complicated hypertension. Clin Exp Hypertens 2009 Feb; 31 (1): 20-30
5. Tziomalos K, Athyros VG, Karagiannis A, et al. Endothelial function, arterial stiffness and lipid lowering drugs. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2007 Sep; 11 (9): 1143-60 (Pubitemid 47532862)
6. Lee HY, Oh BH. Aging and arterial stiffness. Circ J 2010 Nov; 74 (11): 2257-62
7. Rossi P, Francès Y, Kingwell BA, et al. Gender differences in artery wall biomechanical properties throughout life. J Hypertens 2011 Jun; 29 (6): 1023-33
8. McEniery CM, Wilkinson IB, Avolio AP. Age, hypertension and arterial function. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 2007 Jul; 34 (7): 665-71 (Pubitemid 46953116)
9. Stehouwer CD, Henry RM, Ferreira I. Arterial stiffness in diabetes and the metabolic syndrome: a pathway to cardiovascular disease. Diabetologia 2008 Apr; 51 (4): 527-39
10. Seifalian AM, Filippatos TD, Joshi J, et al. Obesity and arterial compliance alterations. Curr Vasc Pharmacol 2010 Mar; 8 (2): 155-68
11. Doonan RJ, Hausvater A, Scallan C, et al. The effect of smoking on arterial stiffness. Hypertens Res 2010 May; 33 (5): 398-410
12. Black HR. The paradigm has shifted, to systolic blood pressure. Hypertension 1999 Sep; 34 (3): 386-7 (Pubitemid 29426751)
13. Kannel WB, Gordon T, Schwartz MJ. Systolic versus diastolic blood pressure and risk of coronary heart disease: the Framingham study. Am J Cardiol 1971 Apr; 27 (4): 335-46
14. Jankowski P, Kawecka-Jaszcz K, Czarnecka D, et al., Aortic Blood Pressure and Survival Study Group. Pulsatile but not steady component of blood pressure predicts cardiovascular events in coronary patients. Hypertension 2008 Apr; 51 (4): 848-55 (Pubitemid 351654694)
15. Roman MJ, Devereux RB, Kizer JR, et al. Central pressure more strongly relates to vascular disease and outcome than does brachial pressure: the Strong Heart Study. Hypertension 2007 Jul; 50 (1): 197-203 (Pubitemid 46986041)
16. Agabiti-Rosei E, Mancia G, O'Rourke MF, et al. Central blood pressure measurements and antihypertensive therapy: a consensus document. Hypertension 2007 Jul; 50 (1): 154-60 (Pubitemid 46986036)
17. Katsiki N, Koumaras C, Athyros VG, et al. Thinking beyond traditional cardiovascular risk factors: the role of arterial stiffness in targeting residual risk. Angiology 2012 Jan; 63 (1): 9-11
18. Laurent S, Katsahian S, Fassot C, et al. Aortic stiffness is an independent predictor of fatal stroke in essential hypertension. Stroke 2003 May; 34(5): 1203-6 (Pubitemid 36547514)
19. Mitchell GF, Hwang SJ, Vasan RS, et al. Arterial stiffness and cardiovascular events: the Framingham Heart Study. Circulation 2010 Feb; 121 (4): 505-11
20. Morgan T, Lauri J, Bertram D, et al. Effect of different antihypertensive drug classes on central aortic pressure. Am J Hypertens 2004 Feb; 17 (2): 118-23 (Pubitemid 38125127)
21. Tropeano AI, Boutouyrie P, Pannier B, et al. Brachial pressure-independent reduction in carotid stiffness after long-term angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition in diabetic hypertensives. Hypertension 2006 Jul; 48 (1): 80-6 (Pubitemid 44313590)
22. Conway J, Lauwers P. Hemodynamic and hypotensive effects of long-term therapy with chlorothiazide. Circulation 1960 Jan; 21: 21-7
23. Dhakam Z, Yasmin, McEniery CM, et al. A comparison of atenolol and nebivolol in isolated systolic hypertension. J Hypertens 2008 Feb; 26 (2): 351-6
24. Tsiara S, Elisaf M, Mikhailidis DP. Early vascular benefits of statin therapy. Curr Med Res Opin 2003; 19 (6): 540-56 (Pubitemid 37122048)
25. Kontopoulos AG, Athyros VG, Pehlivanidis AN, et al. Long-term treatment effect of atorvastatin on aortic stiffness in hypercholesterolaemic patients. Curr Med Res Opin 2003; 19 (1): 22-7 (Pubitemid 36378316)
26. Agarwal N, Rice SP, Bolusani H, et al. Metformin reduces arterial stiffness and improves endothelial function in young women with polycystic ovary syndrome: a randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2010 Feb; 95 (2): 722-30
27. Harashima K, Hayashi J, Miwa T, et al. Long-term pioglitazone therapy improves arterial stiffness in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Metabolism 2009 Jun; 58 (6): 739-45
28. Tanaka H, Munakata M, Kawano Y, et al. Comparison between carotidfemoral and brachial-ankle pulse wave velocity as measures of arterial stiffness. J Hypertens 2009 Oct; 27 (10): 2022-7
29. Tsuchikura S, Shoji T, Kimoto E, et al. Brachial-ankle pulse wave velocity as an index of central arterial stiffness. J Atheroscler Thromb 2010 Jun; 17 (6): 658-65
30. Hongo M, Kumazaki S, Izawa A, et al. Low-dose rosuvastatin improves arterial stiffness in high-risk Japanese patients with dyslipdemia in a primary prevention group. Circ J 2011 Oct; 75 (11): 2660-7
31. Shirai K, Hiruta N, Song M, et al. Cardio-ankle vascular index (CAVI) as a novel indicator of arterial stiffness: theory, evidence and perspectives. J Atheroscler Thromb 2011; 18 (11): 924-38
32. Dolan E, Li Y, Thijs L, et al. Ambulatory arterial stiffness index: rationale and methodology. Blood Press Monit 2006 Apr; 11 (2): 103-5 (Pubitemid 44090024)
33. Van Bortel LM, Struijker-Boudier HA, Safar ME. Pulse pressure, arterial stiffness, and drug treatment of hypertension. Hypertension 2001 Oct; 38 (4): 914-21 (Pubitemid 34258693)
34. Safar ME, Jankowski P. Antihypertensive therapy and de-stiffening of the arteries. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2010 Nov; 11 (16): 2625-34
35. Mahmud A, Feely J. Arterial stiffness and the renin-angiotensin- aldosterone system. J Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone Syst 2004 Sep; 5 (3): 102-8 (Pubitemid 39406718)
36. Protogerou AD, Papaioannou TG, Lekakis JP, et al. The effect of antihypertensive drugs on central blood pressure beyond peripheral blood pressure. Part I: (Patho)-physiology, rationale and perspective on pulse pressure amplification. Curr Pharm Des 2009; 15 (3): 267-71
37. van der Heijden-Spek JJ, Staessen JA, Fagard RH, et al. Effect of age on brachial artery wall properties differs fromthe aorta and is gender dependent: a population study. Hypertension 2000 Feb; 35 (2): 637-42 (Pubitemid 30108161)
38. Kool MJ, Spek JJ, Struyker Boudier HA, et al. Acute and subacute effects of nicorandil and isosorbide dinitrate on vessel wall properties of large arteries and hemodynamics in healthy volunteers. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther 1995 Apr; 9 (2): 331-7
39. Laurent S, Arcaro G, Benetos A, et al. Mechanism of nitrate-induced improvement on arterial compliance depends on vascular territory. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1992 Apr; 19 (4): 641-9
40. Safar ME, Levy BI, Struijker-Boudier H. Current perspectives on arterial stiffness and pulse pressure in hypertension and cardiovascular diseases. Circulation 2003 Jun; 107 (22): 2864-9 (Pubitemid 36705999)
41. Mitchell GF, Lacourcière Y, Arnold JM, et al. Changes in aortic stiffness and augmentation index after acute converting enzyme or vasopeptidase inhibition. Hypertension 2005 Nov; 46 (5): 1111-7 (Pubitemid 41533012)
42. Avolio AP, Van Bortel LM, Boutouyrie P, et al. Role of pulse pressure amplification in arterial hypertension: experts' opinion and review of the data. Hypertension 2009 Aug; 54 (2): 375-83
43. Ahimastos AA, Natoli AK, Lawler A, et al. Ramipril reduces large-artery stiffness in peripheral arterial disease and promotes elastogenic remodeling in cell culture. Hypertension 2005 Jun; 45 (6): 1194-9 (Pubitemid 40770326)
44. Wilkinson IB, McEniery CM. Arterial stiffness, endothelial function and novel pharmacological approaches. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 2004 Nov; 31 (11): 795-9 (Pubitemid 39556856)
45. Bakris GL, Bank AJ, Kass DA, et al. Advanced glycation end-product crosslink breakers: a novel approach to cardiovascular pathologies related to the aging process. Am J Hypertens 2004 Dec; 17 (12 Pt 2): 23S-30S (Pubitemid 39647568)
46. Shapiro BP, Owan TE, Mohammed SF, et al. Advanced glycation end products accumulate in vascular smooth muscle and modify vascular but not ventricular properties in elderly hypertensive canines. Circulation 2008 Sep; 118 (10): 1002-10
47. Kass DA, Shapiro EP, Kawaguchi M, et al. Improved arterial compliance by anovel advanced glycation end-product crosslink breaker. Circulation 2001 Sep; 104 (13): 1464-70 (Pubitemid 32917336)
48. Avolio AP, Deng FQ, Li WQ, et al. Effects of aging on arterial distensibility in populations with high and low prevalence of hypertension: comparison between urban and rural communities in China. Circulation 1985 Feb; 71 (2): 202-10 (Pubitemid 15157079)
49. Safar ME. Can antihypertensive treatment reverse large-artery stiffening? Curr Hypertens Rep 2010 Feb; 12 (1): 47-51
50. Dao HH, Essalihi R, Bouvet C, et al. Evolution and modulation of age-related medial elastocalcinosis: impact on large artery stiffness and isolated systolic hypertension. Cardiovasc Res 2005 May; 66 (2): 307-17 (Pubitemid 40471045)
51. Kakou A, Bézie Y, Mercier N, et al. Selective reduction of central pulse pressure under angiotensin blockage in SHR: role of the fibronectinalpha5beta1 integrin complex. Am J Hypertens 2009 Jul; 22 (7): 711-7
52. Louis H, Kakou A, Regnault V, et al. Role of alpha1beta1-integrin in arterial stiffness and angiotensin-induced arterial wall hypertrophy in mice. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2007 Oct; 293 (4): H2597-604 (Pubitemid 47605909)
53. Bézie Y, Lamazière JM, Laurent S, et al. Fibronectin expression and aortic wall elastic modulus in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1998 Jul; 18 (7): 1027-34 (Pubitemid 28323586)
54. Labat C, Lacolley P, Lajemi M, et al. Effects of valsartan on mechanical properties of the carotid artery in spontaneously hypertensive rats under high-salt diet. Hypertension 2001 Sep; 38 (3): 439-43 (Pubitemid 34225680)
55. Jankowski P, Safar ME, Benetos A. Pleiotropic effects of drugs inhibiting the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. Curr Pharm Des 2009; 15 (5): 571-84
56. Protogerou AD, Stergiou GS, Vlachopoulos C, et al. The effect of antihypertensive drugs on central blood pressure beyond peripheral blood pressure. Part II: Evidence for specific class-effects of antihypertensive drugs on pressure amplification. Curr Pharm Des 2009; 15 (3): 272-89
57. Ghiadoni L, Virdis A, Magagna A, et al. Effect of the angiotensin II type 1 receptor blocker candesartan on endothelial function in patients with essential hypertension. Hypertension 2000 Jan; 35 (1 Pt 2): 501-6 (Pubitemid 30054224)
58. Hornig B, Landmesser U, Kohler C, et al. Comparative effect of ace inhibition and angiotensin II type 1 receptor antagonism on bioavailability of nitric oxide in patients with coronary artery disease: role of superoxide dismutase. Circulation 2001 Feb; 103 (6): 799-805 (Pubitemid 32163876)
59. Richer C, Bruneval P, Ménard J, et al. Additive effects of enalapril and losartan in (mREN-2)27 transgenic rats. Hypertension 1998 Feb; 31 (2): 692-8 (Pubitemid 28086957)
60. Jorde UP, Ennezat PV, Lisker J, et al. Maximally recommended doses of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors do not completely prevent ACE-mediated formation of angiotensin II in chronic heart failure. Circulation 2000 Feb; 101 (8): 844-6 (Pubitemid 30117877)
61. Schmidt BM, Schmieder RE. Aldosterone-induced cardiac damage: focus on blood pressure independent effects. Am J Hypertens 2003 Jan; 16 (1): 80-6 (Pubitemid 36078597)
62. Zannad F, Alla F, Dousset B, et al. Limitation of excessive extracellular matrix turnover may contribute to survival benefit of spironolactone therapy in patients with congestive heart failure: insights from the randomized aldactone evaluation study (RALES). Rales Investigators. Circulation 2000 Nov; 102 (22): 2700-6
63. Lacolley P, Labat C, Pujol A, et al. Increased carotid wall elastic modulus and fibronectin in aldosterone-salt-treated rats: effects of eplerenone. Circulation 2002 Nov; 106 (22): 2848-53 (Pubitemid 35396986)
64. Jiang XJ, O'Rourke MF, Jin WQ, et al. Quantification of glyceryl trinitrate effect through analysis of the synthesised ascending aortic pressure waveform. Heart 2002 Aug; 88 (2): 143-8 (Pubitemid 34787765)
65. Gori T, Parker JD. Nitrate tolerance: a unifying hypothesis. Circulation 2002 Nov; 106 (19): 2510-3 (Pubitemid 35278810)
66. London GM, Asmar RG, O'Rourke MF, et al. REASON Project Investigators. Mechanism(s) of selective systolic blood pressure reduction after alow-dose combination of perindopril/indapamide in hypertensive subjects: comparison with atenolol. J Am Coll Cardiol 2004 Jan; 43 (1): 92-9 (Pubitemid 38045921)
67. Karagiannis A, Mikhailidis DP, Kakafika AI, et al. Atenolol: differences in mode of action compared with other antihypertensives. An opportunity to identify features that influence outcome? Curr Pharm Des 2007; 13 (2): 229-39 (Pubitemid 46085295)
68. Williams B, Lacy PS, Thom SM, et al., CAFE Investigators; Anglo- Scandinavian Cardiac Outcomes Trial Investigators; CAFE Steering Committee and Writing Committee. Differential impact of blood pressurelowering drugs on central aortic pressure and clinical outcomes: principal results of the Conduit Artery Function Evaluation (CAFE) study. Circulation 2006 Mar; 113 (9): 1213-25
69. Chen CH, Ting CT, Lin SJ, et al. Different effects of fosinopril and atenolol on wave reflections in hypertensive patients. Hypertension 1995 May; 25 (5): 1034-41
70. Dhakam Z, McEniery CM, Yasmin, et al. Atenolol and eprosartan: differential effects on central blood pressure and aortic pulse wave velocity. Am J Hypertens 2006 Feb; 19 (2): 214-9 (Pubitemid 43350177)
71. Mackenzie IS, McEniery CM, Dhakam Z, et al. Comparison of the effects of antihypertensive agents on central blood pressure and arterial stiffness in isolated systolic hypertension. Hypertension 2009 Aug; 54 (2): 409-13
72. Mahmud A, Feely J. Beta-blockers reduce aortic stiffness in hypertension but nebivolol, not atenolol, reduces wave reflection. Am J Hypertens 2008 Jun; 21 (6): 663-7 (Pubitemid 351733365)
73. McEniery CM, Schmitt M, Qasem A, et al. Nebivolol increases arterial distensibility in vivo. Hypertension 2004 Sep; 44 (3): 305-10 (Pubitemid 39167227)
74. Polónia J, Barbosa L, Silva JA, et al. Different patterns of peripheral versus central blood pressure in hypertensive patients treated with b-blockers either with or without vasodilator properties or with angiotensin receptor blockers. Blood Press Monit 2010 Oct; 15 (5): 235-9
75. Agabiti-Rosei E, Porteri E, Rizzoni D. Arterial stiffness, hypertension, and rational use of nebivolol. Vasc Health Risk Manag 2009; 5 (1): 353-60
76. Karagiannis A, Athyros VG, Papageorgiou A, et al. Should atenolol still be recommended as first-line therapy for primary hypertension? Hellenic J Cardiol 2006 Sep-Oct; 47 (5): 298-307 (Pubitemid 47621133)
77. Lindholm LH, Carlberg B, Samuelsson O. Should beta blockers remain first choice in the treatment of primary hypertension? A meta-analysis. Lancet 2005 Oct-Nov; 366 (9496): 1545-53 (Pubitemid 41540112)
78. Pedersen ME, Cockcroft JR. What is the role, if any, for beta-blockers as initial therapy for uncomplicated hypertension? Curr Opin Cardiol 2009 Jul; 24 (4): 325-32
79. Jiang XJ, O'Rourke MF, Zhang YQ, et al. Superior effect of an angiotensinconverting enzyme inhibitor over a diuretic for reducing aortic systolic pressure. J Hypertens 2007 May; 25 (5): 1095-9
80. Dart AM, Cameron JD, Gatzka CD, et al. Similar effects of treatment on central and brachial blood pressures in older hypertensive subjects in the Second Australian National Blood Pressure Trial. Hypertension 2007 Jun; 49 (6): 1242-7 (Pubitemid 46809364)
81. Ting CT, Chen CH, Chang MS, et al. Short- and long-term effects of antihypertensive drugs on arterial reflections, compliance, and impedance. Hypertension 1995 Sep; 26 (3): 524-30
82. Topouchian J, Brisac AM, Pannier B, et al. Assessment of the acute arterial effects of converting enzyme inhibition in essential hypertension: a doubleblind, comparative and crossover study. J Hum Hypertens 1998 Mar; 12 (3): 181-7 (Pubitemid 28140288)
83. de Luca N, Asmar RG, London GM, et al., REASON Project Investigators. Selective reduction of cardiac mass and central blood pressure on low-dose combination perindopril/indapamide in hypertensive subjects. J Hypertens 2004 Aug; 22 (8): 1623-30 (Pubitemid 39037615)
84. Kengne AP, Czernichow S, Huxley R, et al., ADVANCE Collaborative Group. Blood pressure variables and cardiovascular risk: new findings from ADVANCE. Hypertension 2009 Aug; 54 (2): 399-404
85. Dahlöf B, Sever PS, Poulter NR, et al., ASCOT Investigators. Prevention of cardiovascular events with an antihypertensive regimen of amlodipine adding perindopril as required versus atenolol adding bendroflumethiazide as required, in the Anglo-Scandinavian Cardiac Outcomes Trial-Blood Pressure Lowering Arm (ASCOT-BPLA): a multicentre randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2005 Sep; 366 (9489): 895-906 (Pubitemid 41265663)
86. Mitchell GF, Dunlap ME, Warnica W, et al., Prevention of Events With Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibition Investigators. Long-term trandolapril treatment is associated with reduced aortic stiffness: the prevention of events with angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition hemodynamic substudy. Hypertension 2007 Jun; 49 (6): 1271-7 (Pubitemid 46809368)
87. Wing LM, Reid CM, Ryan P, et al., Second Australian National Blood Pressure Study Group. A comparison of outcomes with angiotensinconverting- enzyme inhibitors and diuretics for hypertension in the elderly. N Engl J Med 2003 Feb; 348 (7): 583-92 (Pubitemid 36204952)
88. Stokes GS, Barin ES, Gilfillan KL. Effects of isosorbide mononitrate and AII inhibition on pulse wave reflection in hypertension. Hypertension 2003 Feb; 41 (2): 297-301 (Pubitemid 36204905)
89. Aznaouridis KA, Stamatelopoulos KS, Karatzis EN, et al. Acute effects of renin-angiotensin system blockade on arterial function in hypertensive patients. J Hum Hypertens 2007 Aug; 21 (8): 654-63 (Pubitemid 47177101)
90. London GM, Pannier B, Guerin AP, et al. Cardiac hypertrophy, aortic compliance, peripheral resistance, and wave reflection in end-stage renal disease. Comparative effects of ACE inhibition and calcium channel blockade. Circulation 1994 Dec; 90 (6): 2786-96
91. Lacourcière Y, Béliveau R, Conter HS, et al., Canadian Hypertension Society. Effects of perindopril on elastic and structural properties of large arteries in essential hypertension. Can J Cardiol 2004 Jun; 20 (8): 795-9 (Pubitemid 39089608)
92. Pannier BM, Guerin AP, Marchais SJ, et al. Different aortic reflection wave responses following long-term angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition and beta-blocker in essential hypertension. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 2001 Dec; 28 (12): 1074-7 (Pubitemid 34053527)
93. Rehman A, Ismail SB, Naing L, et al. Reduction in arterial stiffness with angiotensin II antagonism and converting enzyme inhibition: a comparative study among Malay hypertensive subjects with a known genetic profile. Am J Hypertens 2007 Feb; 20 (2): 184-9 (Pubitemid 46150021)
94. Topouchian J, Asmar R, Sayegh F, et al. Changes in arterial structure and function under trandolapril-verapamil combination in hypertension. Stroke 1999 May; 30 (5): 1056-64 (Pubitemid 29211627)
95. Kaiser T, Heise T, Nosek L, et al. Influence of nebivolol and enalapril on metabolic parameters and arterial stiffness in hypertensive type 2 diabetic patients. J Hypertens 2006 Jul; 24 (7): 1397-403 (Pubitemid 43948340)
96. Deary AJ, Schumann AL, Murfet H, et al. Influence of drugs and gender on the arterial pulse wave and natriuretic peptide secretion in untreated patients with essential hypertension. Clin Sci 2002 Nov; 103 (5): 493-9 (Pubitemid 35305633)
97. Ali K, Rajkumar C, Fantin F, et al. Irbesartan improves arterial compliance more than lisinopril. Vasc Health Risk Manag 2009; 5 (4): 587-92
98. Hirata K, Vlachopoulos C, Adji A, et al. Benefits from angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor 'beyond blood pressure lowering': beyond blood pressure or beyond the brachial artery? J Hypertens 2005 Mar; 23 (3): 551-6 (Pubitemid 40684713)
99. London GM, Pannier B, Vicaut E, et al. Antihypertensive effects and arterial haemodynamic alterations during angiotensin converting enzyme inhibition. J Hypertens 1996 Sep; 14 (9): 1139-46 (Pubitemid 26329293)
100. Ferguson JM, Minas J, Siapantas S, et al. Effects of a fixed-dose ACE inhibitor- diuretic combination on ambulatory blood pressure and arterial properties in isolated systolic hypertension. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 2008 Jun; 51 (6): 590-5
101. Mahmud A, Feely J. Favourable effects on arterial wave reflection and pulse pressure amplification of adding angiotensin II receptor blockade in resistant hypertension. J Hum Hypertens 2000 Sep; 14 (9): 541-6
102. Mahmud A, Feely J. Reduction in arterial stiffness with angiotensin II antagonist is comparable with and additive to ACE inhibition.AmJ Hypertens 2002 Apr; 15 (4 Pt 1): 321-5 (Pubitemid 34408971)
103. Klingbeil AU, John S, Schneider MP, et al. AT1-receptor blockade improves augmentation index: a double-blind, randomized, controlled study. J Hypertens 2002 Dec; 20 (12): 2423-8 (Pubitemid 36026855)
104. Karalliedde J, Smith A, DeAngelis L, et al. Valsartan improves arterial stiffness in type 2 diabetes independently of blood pressure lowering. Hypertension 2008 Jun; 51 (6): 1617-23
105. Kosch M, Levers A, Lang D, et al. A randomized, double-blind study of valsartan versus metoprolol on arterial distensibility and endothelial function in essential hypertension. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2008 Jul; 23 (7): 2280-5 (Pubitemid 351957584)
106. Mediavilla Garc?́a JD, Fernández-Torres C, Jaén Aguila F, et al. Effect of olmesartan medoxomil on arterial stiffness in patients with essential hypertension. Med Clin (Barc) 2007 May; 128 (19): 726-9
107. Matsui Y, Eguchi K, O'Rourke MF, et al. Differential effects between acalcium channel blocker and a diuretic when used in combination with angiotensin II receptor blocker on central aortic pressure in hypertensive patients. Hypertension 2009 Oct; 54 (4): 716-23
108. Asmar R. Effect of telmisartan on arterial distensibility and central blood pressure in patients with mild to moderate hypertension and type 2 diabetes mellitus. J Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone Syst 2001 Sep; 2 Suppl. 2: S8-11
109. Jung AD, Kim W, Park SH, et al. The effect of telmisartan on endothelial function and arterial stiffness in patients with essential hypertension. Korean Circ J 2009 May; 39 (5): 180-4
110. Mahmud A, Feely J. Effect of angiotensin II receptor blockade on arterial stiffness: beyond blood pressure reduction. Am J Hypertens 2002 Dec; 15 (12): 1092-5 (Pubitemid 35397544)
111. Davies J, Carr E, Band M, et al. Do losartan and atenolol have differential effects on BNP and central haemodynamic parameters? J Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone Syst 2005 Dec; 6 (3): 151-3 (Pubitemid 43263354)
112. Dahlöf B, Devereux RB, Kjeldsen SE, et al., LIFE Study Group. Cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in the Losartan Intervention For Endpoin reduction in hypertension study (LIFE): a randomised trial against atenolol. Lancet 2002 Mar; 359 (9311): 995-1003 (Pubitemid 34286536)
113. Julius S, Kjeldsen SE, Weber M, et al., VALUE trial group. Outcomes in hypertensive patients at high cardiovascular risk treated with regimens based on valsartan or amlodipine: the VALUE randomised trial. Lancet 2004 Jun; 363 (9426): 2022-31 (Pubitemid 38781102)
114. Julius S, Weber MA, Kjeldsen SE, et al. The Valsartan Antihypertensive Long-Term Use Evaluation (VALUE) trial: outcomes in patients receiving monotherapy. Hypertension 2006 Sep; 48 (3): 385-91 (Pubitemid 44253730)
115. Dickstein K, Kjekshus J. OPTIMAAL Steering Committee of the OPTIMAAL Study Group Effects of losartan and captopril on mortality and morbidity in high-risk patients after acute myocardial infarction: the OPTIMAAL randomised trial. Optimal Trial in Myocardial Infarction with Angiotensin II Antagonist Losartan. Lancet 2002 Sep; 360 (9335): 752-60
116. Mahmud A, Feely J. Aldosterone-to-renin ratio, arterial stiffness, and the response to aldosterone antagonism in essential hypertension. Am J Hypertens 2005 Jan; 18 (1): 50-5 (Pubitemid 40187349)
117. Kithas PA, Supiano MA. Spironolactone and hydrochlorothiazide decrease vascular stiffness and blood pressure in geriatric hypertension. J Am Geriatr Soc 2010 Jul; 58 (7): 1327-32
118. Edwards NC, Steeds RP, Stewart PM, et al. Effect of spironolactone on left ventricular mass and aortic stiffness in early-stage chronic kidney disease: a randomized controlled trial. J Am Coll Cardiol 2009 Aug; 54 (6): 505-12
119. White WB, Duprez D, St Hillaire R, et al. Effects of the selective aldosterone blocker eplerenone versus the calcium antagonist amlodipine in systolic hypertension. Hypertension 2003 May; 41 (5): 1021-6 (Pubitemid 36548598)
120. Savoia C, Touyz RM, Amiri F, et al. Selective mineralocorticoid receptor blocker eplerenone reduces resistance artery stiffness in hypertensive patients. Hypertension 2008 Feb; 51 (2): 432-9 (Pubitemid 351156429)
121. Cherney DZ, Lai V, Scholey JW, et al. Effect of direct renin inhibition on renal hemodynamic function, arterial stiffness, and endothelial function in humans with uncomplicated type 1 diabetes: a pilot study. Diabetes Care 2010 Feb; 33 (2): 361-5
122. Palombo C, Malshi E, Morizzo C, et al. Arterial wave reflection during antihypertensive therapy with barnidipine: a 6-month, open-label study using an integrated cardiovascular ultrasound approach in patients with newly diagnosed hypertension. Clin Ther 2009 Dec; 31 (12): 2873-85
123. Alem M, Milia P, Muir S, et al. Comparison of the effects of diuretics on blood pressure and arterial stiffness in patients with stroke. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 2008 Nov-Dec; 17 (6): 373-7
124. Lekakis JP, Protogerou A, Papamichael C, et al. Effect of nebivolol and atenolol on brachial artery flow-mediated vasodilation in patients with coronary artery disease. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther 2005 Aug; 19 (4): 277-81 (Pubitemid 41778808)
125. Heffernan KS, Suryadevara R, Patvardhan EA, et al. Effect of atenolol vs metoprolol succinate on vascular function in patients with hypertension. Clin Cardiol 2011 Jan; 34 (1): 39-44
126. The Task Force for the Management of Arterial Hypertension of the European Society of Hypertension (ESH) and of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). 2007 guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension. Eur Heart J. 2007 Jun; 28 (12): 1462-536
127. Reappraisal of European guidelines on hypertension management: a European Society ofHypertension Task Force document. J Hypertens 2009Nov; 27 (11): 2121-58
128. Kelly RP, GibbsHH, O'Rourke MF, et al. Nitroglycerin has more favourable effects on left ventricular afterload than apparent from measurement of pressure in a peripheral artery. Eur Heart J 1990 Feb; 11 (2): 138-44 (Pubitemid 20095698)
129. Simkus GJ, Fitchett DH. Radial arterial pressure measurements may be a poor guide to the beneficial effects of nitroprusside on left ventricular systolic pressure in congestive heart failure. Am J Cardiol 1990 Aug; 66 (3): 323-6 (Pubitemid 20235757)
130. Ong KT, Delerme S, Pannier B, et al. Aortic stiffness is reduced beyond blood pressure lowering by short-term and long-term antihypertensive treatment: ameta-analysis of individual data in 294 patients. J Hypertens 2011 Jun; 29 (6): 1034-42
131. Van Bortel LM, De Backer T, De Buyzere M. How to treat arterial stiffness beyond blood pressure lowering? J Hypertens 2011 Jun; 29 (6): 1051-3