Looking to the future: Incorporating genomic information into disparities research to reduce measurement error and selection bias

Health Services Research

Volumn 47, Issue 3 PART 2, 2012, Pages 1387-1410

  Shields, Alexandra E ^a   Crown, William H ^a,b  

^a MASSACHUSETTS GENERAL HOSPITAL   (United States)

^b OPTUM   (United States)

Author keywords

genomics; Health economics; personalized medicine; racial ethnic differences in health and health care; social determinants of health

Indexed keywords

ANTICOAGULANT AGENT; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; CYTOCHROME P450; EPIDERMAL GROWTH FACTOR RECEPTOR; GEFITINIB; TRASTUZUMAB; TRICYCLIC ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT;

AFRICAN AMERICAN; AIR POLLUTION; BREAST CANCER; CANCER RECURRENCE; CANCER RISK; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CAUCASIAN; CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE LUNG DISEASE; CLINICAL PRACTICE; CONFERENCE PAPER; DRUG METABOLISM; ELECTRONIC MEDICAL RECORD; ETHNIC DIFFERENCE; ETHNIC GROUP; FEMALE; GENE MUTATION; GENETIC RISK; GENETIC VARIABILITY; GENOMICS; GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM; HEALTH CARE ACCESS; HEALTH DISPARITY; HEALTH ECONOMICS; HEALTH SERVICES RESEARCH; HEALTH STATUS; HUMAN; LUNG FUNCTION; LUNG NON SMALL CELL CANCER; MALE; MEASUREMENT ERROR; MEDICAL DECISION MAKING; OUTCOMES RESEARCH; PATIENT SELECTION; PERSONALIZED MEDICINE; POPULATION GENETICS; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; RACE DIFFERENCE; RECURRENCE RISK; RISK REDUCTION; SOCIAL STATUS; SOCIOECONOMICS; TREATMENT PLANNING; TREATMENT RESPONSE; TRIPLE NEGATIVE BREAST CANCER;

BREAST NEOPLASMS; CONTINENTAL POPULATION GROUPS; FEMALE; GENES, ERBB-2; GENOMICS; HEALTH STATUS; HEALTH STATUS DISPARITIES; HEALTHCARE DISPARITIES; HUMANS; SELECTION BIAS; SOCIOECONOMIC FACTORS; SOCIOLOGY, MEDICAL;

EID: 84861189797     PISSN: 00179124     EISSN: 14756773     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1475-6773.2012.01413.x     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (82)

1. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. 2011. 2010 National Healthcare Disparities Report. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality.
2. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. 2012. " U.S. Preventive Services Task Force " [accessed on February 1, 2012]. Available at. http://www.ahrq.gov/clinic/uspstfix.htm.
3. Amstutz, U., and, B. C. Carleton,. 2011. " Pharmacogenetic Testing: Time for Clinical Practice Guidelines." Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 89 (6): 924-7.
4. Beitelshees, A. L., and, D. L. Veenstra,. 2011. " Evolving Research and Stakeholder Perspectives on Pharmacogenomics." Journal of the American Medical Association 306 (11): 1252-3.
5. Bruno, M., M. Digennaro, S. Tommasi, B. Stea, T. Danese, F. Schittulli, and, A. Paradiso,. 2010. " Attitude Towards Genetic Testing for Breast Cancer Susceptibility: A Comparison of Affected and Unaffected Women." European Journal of Cancer Care 19 (3): 360-8.
6. Bryc, K., A. Auton, M. R. Nelson, J. R. Oksenberg, S. L. Hauser, S. Williams, A. Froment, J. M. Bodo, C. Wambebe, S. A. Tishkoff, and, C. D. Bustamante,. 2010. " Genome-Wide Patterns of Population Structure and Admixture in West Africans and African Americans." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107 (2): 786-91.
7. Burtness, B., M. Anadkat, S. Basti, M. Hughes, M. E. Lacouture, J. S. McClure, P. L. Myskowski, J. Paul, C. S. Perlis, L. Saltz, and, S. Spencer,. 2009. " NCCN Task Force Report: Management of Dermatologic and Other Toxicities Associated with EGFR Inhibition in Patients with Cancer." Journal of the National Comprehensive Cancer Network 7 (suppl 1): S5-S21; quiz S22-24-S5-21; quiz S22-24.
8. Carey, L. A., C. M. Perou, C. A. Livasy, L. G. Dressler, D. Cowan, K. Conway, G. Karaca, M. A. Troester, C. K. Tse, S. Edmiston, S. L. Deming, J. Geradts, M. C. U. Cheang, T. O. Nielsen, P. G. Moorman, H. S. Earp, and, R. C. Millikan,. 2006. " Race, Breast Cancer Subtypes, and Survival in the Carolina Breast Cancer Study." Journal of the American Medical Association 295 (21): 2492-2502. (Pubitemid 43854964)
9. Carlson, R. W., S. J. Moench, M. E. Hammond, E. A. Perez, H. J. Burstein, D. C. Allred, C. L. Vogel, L. J. Goldstein, G. Somlo, W. J. Gradishar, C. A. Hudis, M. Jahanzeb, A. Stark, A. C. Wolff, M. F. Press, E. P. Winer, S. Paik, B. M. Ljung, and the NCCN HER2 Testing in Breast Cancer Task Force. 2006. " HER2 Testing in Breast Cancer: NCCN Task Force Report and Recommendations." Journal of the National Comprehensive Cancer Network 4: S1-S22.
10. Chang, H. R., 2010. " Trastuzumab-Based Neoadjuvant Therapy in Patients with HER2-Positive Breast Cancer." Cancer 116 (12): 2856-2867.
11. Cleator, S., W. Heller, and, R. C. Coombes,. 2007. " Triple-Negative Breast Cancer: Therapeutic Options." Lancet Oncology 8 (3): 235-244. (Pubitemid 46291713)
12. Cook, B. L., T. G. McGuire, E. Meara, and, A. M. Zaslavsky,. 2008. " Adjusting for Health Status in Non-Linear Models of Health Care Disparities." Health Services and Outcomes Research Methodology 9 (1): 1-21.
13. Cook, B. L., T. G. McGuire, and, A. M. Zaslavsky,. 2012. " Measuring Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Health Care: Methods and Practical Issues." Health Services Research doi: 10.1111/j.1475-6773.2012.01413.x.
14. Crown, W. H., 2010. " There's a Reason They Call Them Dummy Variables: A Note on the Use of Structural Equation Techniques in Comparative Effectiveness Research." PharmacoEconomics 28 (10): 947-955.
15. DesRoches, C. M., E. G. Campbell, S. R. Rao, K. Donelan, T. G. Ferris, A. Jha, R. Kaushal, D. E. Levy, S. Rosenbaum, A. E. Shields, and, D. Blumenthal,. 2008. " Electronic Health Records in Ambulatory Care-A National Survey of Physicians." New England Journal of Medicine 359 (1): 50-60. (Pubitemid 351931096)
16. Ege, M. J., D. P. Strachan, W. O. C. M. Cookson, M. F. Moffatt, I. Gut, M. Lathrop, M. Kabesch, J. Genuneit, G. Büchele, B. Sozanska, A. Boznanski, P. Cullinan, E. Horak, C. Bieli, C. Braun-Fahrländer, D. Heederik, and, E. von Mutius,. 2011. " Gene-Environment Interaction for Childhood Asthma and Exposure to Farming in Central Europe." Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 127 (1): 144.e1-4.
17. Freedman, M. L., C. A. Haiman, N. Patterson, G. J. McDonald, A. Tandon, A. Waliszewska, K. Penney, R. G. Steen, K. Ardlie, E. M. John, I., Oakley-Girvan, A. S. Whittemore, K. A. Cooney, S. A. Ingles, D. Altshuler, B. E. Henderson, and, D. Reich, 2006. " Admixture Mapping Identifies 8q24 as a Prostate Cancer Risk Locus in African-American men." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103 (38): 14068-68.
18. Garman, K. S., J. R. Nevins, and, A. Potti,. 2007. " Genomic Strategies for Personalized Cancer Therapy." Human Molecular Genetics 16 (R2): R226-R26.
19. Greenberg, P. L., C. K. Rigsby, R. M. Stone, H. J. Deeg, S. D. Gore, M. M. Millenson, S. D. Nimer, M. R. O'Donnell, P. J. Shami, and, R. Kumar,. 2009. " NCCN Task Force: Transfusion and Iron Overload in Patients with Myelodysplastic Syndromes." Journal of the National Comprehensive Cancer Network 7 (suppl 9): S1-S16.
20. Haga, S. B., 2010. " Impact of Limited Population Diversity of Genome-Wide Association Studies." Genetics in Medicine 12 (2): 81-4.
21. Halbert, C. H., L. J. Kessler, and, E. Mitchell,. 2005. " Genetic Testing for Inherited Breast Cancer Risk in African Americans." Cancer Investigation 23 (4): 285-295. (Pubitemid 41656967)
22. Hayden, E. C., 2009. " Personalized Cancer Therapy Gets Closer." Nature 458 (7235): 131-2.
23. Hirschhorn, J. N., and, Z. K. Z. Gajdos,. 2011. " Genome-Wide Association Studies: Results from the First Few Years and Potential Implications for Clinical Medicine." Annual Review of Medicine 62 (1): 11-24.
24. H.R. 493-110th Congress. 2008. " Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008, H.R. 493, 110th Congress, 2nd Session."
25. Hunter, D. J., 2005. " Gene-Environment Interactions in Human Diseases." Nature Reviews Genetics 6: 287-98. (Pubitemid 40469048)
26. Hutter, C. M., A. M. Young, H. M. Ochs-Balcom, C. L. Carty, T. Wang, C. T. L. Chen, T. E. Rohan, C. Kooperberg, and, U. Peters,. 2011. " Replication of Breast Cancer GWAS Susceptibility Loci in the Women's Health Initiative African American SHARe Study." Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention 20 (9): 1950-59.
27. Institute of Medicine. 2001. Crossing the Quality Chasm: A New Health System for the 21st Century. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
28. Institute of Medicine. 2003. Unequal Treatment: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
29. Jemal, A., R. Siegel, E. Ward, Y. Hao, J. Xu, and, M. J. Thun,. 2009. " Cancer Statistics, 2009." CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians 59 (4): 225-49.
30. Jha, A. K., C. M. DesRoches, E. G. Campbell, K. Donelan, S. R. Rao, T. G. Ferris, A. Shields, S. Rosenbaum, and, D. Blumenthal,. 2009a. " Use of Electronic Health Records in US Hospitals." New England Journal of Medicine 360 (16): 1628-38.
31. Jha, A. K., C. M. DesRoches, A. E. Shields, P. D. Miralles, J. Zheng, S. Rosenbaum, and, E. G. Campbell,. 2009b. " Evidence of an Emerging Digital Divide among Hospitals That Care for the Poor." Health Affairs 28 (6): w1160-w70.
32. Jirtle, R. L., and, M. K. Skinner,. 2007. " Environmental Epigenomics and Disease Susceptibility." Nature Reviews Genetics 8 (4): 253-62. (Pubitemid 46439287)
33. Kaiser Permanente. 2011. " DNA of 100,000 Kaiser Permanente Members Genotyped in 15 Months, Creating Novel Resource for Research." Division of Research [accessed on November 2, 2011]. Available at:.
34. Kao, W. H. L., M. J. Klag, L. A. Meoni, D. Reich, Y. Berthier-Schaad, M. Li, J. Coresh, N. Patterson, A. Tandon, N. R. Powe, N. E. Fink, J. H. Sadler, M. R. Weir, H. E. Abboud, S. G. Adler, J. Divers, S. K. Iyengar, B. I. Freedman, P. L. Kimmel, W. C. Knowler, O. F. Kohn, K. Kramp, D. J. Leehey, S. B. Nicholas, M. V. Pahl, J. R. Schelling, J. R. Sedor, D. Thornley-Brown, C. A. Winkler, M. W. Smith, and, R. S. Parekh,. 2008. " MYH9 Is Associated with Nondiabetic End-Stage Renal Disease in African Americans." Nature Genetics 40 (10): 1185-92.
35. Kathiresan, S., C. J. Willer, G. M. Peloso, S. Demissie, K. Musunuru, E. E. Schadt, L. Kaplan, D. Bennett, Y. Li, T. Tanaka, B. F. Voight, L. L. Bonnycastle, A. U. Jackson, G. Crawford, A. Surti, C. Guiducci, N. P. Burtt, S. Parish, R. Clarke, D. Zelenika, K. A. Kubalanza, M. A. Morken, L. J. Scott, H. M. Stringham, P. Galan, A. J. Swift, J. Kuusisto, R. N. Bergman, J. Sundvall, M. Laakso, L. Ferrucci, P. Scheet, S. Sanna, M. Uda, Q. Yang, K. L. Lunetta, J. Dupuis, P. I. W. de Bakker, C. J. O'Donnell, J. C. Chambers, J. S. Kooner, S. Hercberg, P. Meneton, E. G. Lakatta, A. Scuteri, D. Schlessinger, J. Tuomilehto, F. S. Collins, L. Groop, D. Altshuler, R. Collins, G. M. Lathrop, O. Melander, V. Salomaa, L. Peltonen, M. Orho-Melander, J. M. Ordovas, M. Boehnke, G. R. Abecasis, K. L. Mohlke, and, L. A. Cupples,. 2009. " Common Variants at 30 Loci Contribute to Polygenic Dyslipidemia." Nature Genetics 41 (1): 56-65.
36. Khoury, M. J., A. Berg, R. Coates, J. Evans, S. M. Teutsch, and, L. A. Bradley,. 2008. " The Evidence Dilemma in Genomic Medicine." Health Affairs 27 (6): 1600-11.
37. King, M.-C., J. H. Marks, and, J. B. Mandell,. 2003. " Breast and Ovarian Cancer Risks due to Inherited Mutations in BRCA1 and BRCA2." Science (New York, N.Y.) 302 (5645): 643-46. (Pubitemid 37310920)
38. Kohane, I. S., 2011. " Using Electronic Health Records to Drive Discovery in Disease Genomics." Nature Reviews Genetics 12 (6): 417-28.
39. Kris, M. G., R. B. Natale, R. S. Herbst, T. J. Lynch, D. Prager, C. P. Belani, J. H. Schiller, K. Kelly, H. Spiridonidis, A. Sandler, K. S. Albain, D. Cella, M. K. Wolf, S. D. Averbuch, J. J. Ochs, and, A. C. Kay,. 2003. " Efficacy of Gefitinib, an Inhibitor of the Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor Tyrosine Kinase, in Symptomatic Patients with Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer." Journal of the American Medical Association 290 (16): 2149-58. (Pubitemid 37432975)
40. Levin, B., J. S. Barthel, R. W. Burt, D. S. David, J. M. Ford, F. M. Giardiello, S. B. Gruber, A. L. Halverson, S. Hamilton, W. Kohlmann, K. A. Ludwig, P. M. Lynch, C. Marino, E. W. Martin Jr, R. J. Mayer, B. Pasche, S. J. Pirruccello, A. Rajput, M. S. Rao, M. Shike, G. Steinbach, J. P. Terdiman, D. Weinberg, and, S. J. Winawer,. 2006. " Colorectal Cancer Screening Clinical Practice Guidelines." Journal of the National Comprehensive Cancer Network 4 (4): 384-420. (Pubitemid 44265358)
41. Low, Y. L., and, E. S. Tai,. 2007. " Understanding Diet-Gene Interactions: Lessons from Studying Nutrigenomics and Cardiovascular Disease." Mutation Research 622 (1-2): 7-13. (Pubitemid 47224955)
42. Lund, M. J., E. N. Butler, B. Y. Hair, K. C. Ward, J. H. Andrews, G. Oprea-Ilies, A. R. Bayakly, R. M. O'Regan, P. M. Vertino, and, J. W. Eley,. 2010. " Age/Race Differences in HER2 Testing and in Incidence Rates for Breast Cancer Triple Subtypes: A Population-Based Study and First Report." Cancer 116 (11): 2549-59.
43. Lynch, P. M., 2006. " Current Approaches in Familial Colorectal Cancer: A Clinical Perspective." Journal of the National Comprehensive Cancer Network 4 (4): 421-30. (Pubitemid 44265359)
44. Mallal, S., E. Phillips, G. Carosi, J. M. Molina, C. Workman, J. Tomažič, E. Jägel-Guedes, S. Rugina, O. Kozyrev, J. F. Cid, P. Hay, D. Nolan, S. Hughes, S. Hughes. A. Hughes, S. Ryan, N. Fitch, D. Thorborn, and, A. Benbow, 2008. " HLA-B* 5701 Screening for Hypersensitivity to Abacavir." New England Journal of Medicine 358 (6): 568-79. (Pubitemid 351214284)
45. Maller, J., S. George, S. Purcell, J. Fagerness, D. Altshuler, M. J. Daly, and, J. M. Seddon,. 2006. " Common Variation in Three Genes, Including a Noncoding Variant in CFH, Strongly Influences Risk of age-Related Macular Degeneration." Nature Genetics 38 (9): 1055-59. (Pubitemid 44325932)
46. Manolio, T. A., F. S. Collins, N. J. Cox, D. B. Goldstein, L. A. Hindorff, D. J. Hunter, M. I. McCarthy, E. M. Ramos, L. R. Cardon, A. Chakravarti, A. E. Guttmacher, A. Kong, L. Kruglyak, E. Mardis, C. N. Rotimi, M. Slatkin, D. Valle, A. S. Whittemore, M. Boehnke, A. G. Clark, E. E. Eichler, G. Gibson, J. L. Haines, T. F. Mackay, S. A. McCarroll, and, P. M. Visscher, 2009. " Finding the Missing Heritability of Complex Diseases." Nature 461 (7265): 747-53.
47. Massachusetts General Hospital. 2009. Massachusetts General Hospital Cancer Center Opens Molecular Pathology Lab to Genetically Profile all Patient Tumors. Boston: News, Massachusetts General Hospital.
48. McCarthy, C. R., 1994. " Historical Background of Clinical Trials Involving Women and Minorities." Academic Medicine 69 (9): 695-98. (Pubitemid 24289937)
49. McGuire, T. G., M. Alegria, B. L. Cook, K. B. Wells, and, A. M. Zaslavsky,. 2006. " Implementing the Institute of Medicine Definition of Disparities: An Application to Mental Health Care." Health Services Research 41 (5): 1979-2005. (Pubitemid 44434272)
50. Moysich, K. B., P. G. Shields, J. L. Freudenheim, E. F. Schisterman, J. E. Vena, P. Kostyniak, H. Greizerstein, J. R. Marshall, S. Graham, and, C. B. Ambrosone,. 1999. " Polychlorinated Biphenyls, Cytochrome P4501A1 Polymorphism, and Postmenopausal Breast Cancer Risk." Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention, A Publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, Cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology, 8 (1): 41-44. (Pubitemid 29090868)
51. National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. 1978. The Belmont Report: Ethical Principles and Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects of Research. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
52. National Human Genome Research Institute. 2010. " Genetic and Genomic Science " [accessed on March 12, 2012]. Available at.
53. National Institutes of Health. 1993. " National Institutes of Health Revitalization Act: Subtitle B, Clinical Research Equity Regarding Women and Minorities." 42 U.S.C.: National Institutes of Health Revitalization Act.
54. National Institutes of Health. 2012. " Secretary's Advisory Committee on Genetics, Health, and Society " [accessed on March 12, 2012]. Available at.
55. Novembre, J., T. Johnson, K. Bryc, Z. Kutalik, A. R. Boyko, A. Auton, A. Indap, K. S. King, S. Bergmann, M. R. Nelson, M. Stephens, and, C. D. Bustamante, 2008. " Genes Mirror Geography within Europe." Nature 456 (7218): 98-101.
56. O'Connor, A. M., J. E. Wennberg, F. Legare, H. A. Llewellyn-Thomas, B. W. Moulton, K. R. Sepucha, A. G. Sodano, and, J. S. King,. 2007. " Toward the 'Tipping Point': Decision Aids and Informed Patient Choice." Health Affairs 26 (3): 716-25.
57. Office of Management and Budget. 1997. Recommendations from the Interagency Committee for the Review of the Racial and Ethnic Standards to the Office of Management and Budget Concerning Changes to the Standards for the Classification of Federal Data on Race and Ethnicity, pp 36873-946. Washington, DC: Federal Register.
58. Olden, K., N. Freudenberg, J. Dowd, and, A. E. Shields,. 2011. " Discovering how Environmental Exposures Alter Genes Could Lead to New Treatments for Chronic Illnesses." Health Affairs 30 (5): 833-41.
59. Paez, J. G., P. A. Jänne, J. C. Lee, S. Tracy, H. Greulich, S. Gabriel, P. Herman, F. J. Kaye, N. Lindeman, T. J. Boggon, K. Naoki, H. Sasaki, Y. Fujii, M. J. Eck, W. R. Sellers, B. E. Johnson, and, M. Meyerson, 2004. " EGFR Mutations in Lung Cancer: Correlation with Clinical Response to Gefitinib Therapy." Science 304 (5676): 1497-1500. (Pubitemid 38720929)
60. Park, S. K., M. S. O'Neill, R. O. Wright, H. Hu, P. S. Vokonas, D. Sparrow, H. Suh, and, J. Schwartz,. 2006. " HFE Genotype, Particulate Air Pollution, and Heart Rate Variability: A Gene-Environment Interaction." Circulation 114 (25): 2798-805. (Pubitemid 46018282)
61. Parra, E. J., 2007. " Human Pigmentation Variation: Evolution, Genetic Basis, and Implications for Public Health." American Journal of Physical Anthropology 134 (S45): 85-105. (Pubitemid 350221252)
62. Patterson, N., N. Hattangadi, B. Lane, K. E. Lohmueller, D. A. Hafler, J. R. Oksenberg, S. L. Hauser, M. W. Smith, S. J. O'Brien, D. Altshuler, M. J. Daly, and, D. Reich, 2004. " Methods for High-Density Admixture Mapping of Disease Genes." American Journal of Human Genetics 74 (5): 979-1000. (Pubitemid 38578397)
63. Peters, N., A. Rose, and, K. Armstrong,. 2004. " The Association between Race and Attitudes about Predictive Genetic Testing." Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention 13 (3): 361-5. (Pubitemid 38737459)
64. Peters, E., J. Hibbard, P. Slovic, and, N. Dieckmann,. 2007. " Numeracy Skill and the Communication, Comprehension, and Use of Risk-Benefit Information." Health Affairs 26 (3): 741-48.
65. Piccart-Gebhart, M. J., M. Procter, B. Leyland-Jones, A. Goldhirsch, M. Untch, I. Smith, L. Gianni, J. Baselga, R. Bell, C. Jackisch, D. Cameron, M. Dowsett, C. H. Barrios, G. Steger, C. S. Huang, M. Andersson, M. Inbar, M. Lichinitser, I. Láng, U. Nitz, H. Iwata, C. Thomssen, C. Lohrisch, T. M. Suter, J. Rüschoff, T. Suto, V. Greatorex, C. Ward, C. C. Straehle, E. McFadden, M. S. Dolci, R. D. Gelber, and Herceptin Adjuvant (HERA) Trial Study Team. 2005. " Trastuzumab after Adjuvant Chemotherapy in HER2-Positive Breast Cancer." New England Journal of Medicine 353 (16): 1659-72. (Pubitemid 41464705)
66. Puppala, S., D. K. Coletta, J. Schneider, S. L. Hu, V. S. Farook, T. D. Dyer, R. Arya, J. Blangero, R. Duggirala, R. A. DeFronzo, and, C. P. Jenkinson, 2011. " Genome-Wide Linkage Screen for Systolic Blood Pressure in the Veterans Administration Genetic Epidemiology Study (VAGES) of Mexican-Americans and Confirmation of a Major Susceptibility Locus on Chromosome 6q14. 1." Human Heredity 71 (1): 1-10.
67. Romond, E. H., E. A. Perez, J. Bryant, V. J. Suman, C. E. Jr Geyer, N. E. Davidson, E. Tan-Chiu, S. Martino, S. Paik, P. A. Kaufman, S. M. Swain, T. M. Pisansky, L. Fehrenbacher, L. A. Kutteh, G. Vogel, D. W. Visscher, G. Yothers, R. B. Jenkins, A. M. Brown, S. R. Dakhil, E. P. Mamounas, W. L. Lingle, P. M. Klein, J. N. Ingle, and, N. Wolmark, 2005. " Trastuzumab Plus Adjuvant Chemotherapy for Operable HER2-Positive Breast Cancer." New England Journal of Medicine 353 (16): 1673-84. (Pubitemid 41464706)
68. Royal, C. D. M., and, G. M. Dunston,. 2004. " Changing the Paradigm from 'Race' to Human Genome Variation." Nature Genetics 36 (suppl 11): S5-7. (Pubitemid 41103830)
69. Salem, R. M., B. Pandey, E. Richard, M. M. Fung, E. P. Garcia, V. H. Brophy, N. J. Schork, D. T. O'Connor, and, V. Bhatnagar,. 2010. " The VA Hypertension Primary Care Longitudinal Cohort: Electronic Medical Records in the Post-Genomic era." Health Informatics Journal 16 (4): 274-74.
70. Schwarz, U. I., M. D. Ritchie, Y. Bradford, C. Li, S. M. Dudek, A. Frye-Anderson, R. B. Kim, D. M. Roden, and, C. M. Stein,. 2008. " Genetic Determinants of Response to Warfarin during Initial Anticoagulation." New England Journal of Medicine 358 (10): 999-1008. (Pubitemid 351347099)
71. Shields, A. E., M. Fortun, E. M. Hammonds, P. A. King, C. Lerman, R. Rapp, and, P. F. Sullivan,. 2005. " The use of Race Variables in Genetic Studies of Complex Traits and the Goal of Reducing Health Disparities: A Transdisciplinary Perspective." American Psychologist 60 (1): 77-103. (Pubitemid 40131552)
72. Shields, A. E., P. Shin, M. G. Leu, D. E. Levy, R. M. Betancourt, D. Hawkins, and, M. Proser,. 2007. " Adoption of Health Information Technology in Community Health Centers: Results of a National Survey." Health Affairs 26 (5): 1373-83.
73. Sivell, S., R. Iredale, J. Gray, and, B. Coles,. 2007. " Cancer Genetic Risk Assessment for Individuals at Risk of Familial Breast Cancer." Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (Online) 2: CD003721.
74. Smit, L. A. M., D. Heederik, G. Doekes, G. H. Koppelman, R. W. B. Bottema, D. S. Postma, and, I. M. Wouters,. 2011. " Endotoxin Exposure, CD14 and Wheeze among Farmers: A Gene-Environment Interaction." Occupational and Environmental Medicine 68 (11): 826-31.
75. Swede, H., D. I. Gregorio, S. H. Tannenbaum, J. A. Brockmeyer, C. Ambrosone, L. L. Wilson, M. A. Pensa, L. Gonsalves, R. G. Stevens, and, C. D. Runowicz,. 2011. " Prevalence and Prognostic Role of Triple-Negative Breast Cancer by Race: A Surveillance Study." Clinical Breast Cancer 11 (5): 332-41.
76. Teutsch, S. M., L. A. Bradley, G. E. Palomaki, J. E. Haddow, M. Piper, N. Calonge, W. D. Dotson, M. P. Douglas, and, A. O. Berg,. 2009. " The Evaluation of Genomic Applications in Practice and Prevention (EGAPP) Initiative: Methods of the EGAPP Working Group." Genetics in Medicine 11 (1): 3-3.
77. Thomson, J., D. Garry, M. Poncz, S. Center, B. Torok-Storb, A. Friedman, J. Cooke, J. D. G. Institutes, D. S. San Francisco, and, A. Hatzopoulos,. 2010. " Kaiser Permanente & UCSF Receive NIH Award for Genetic Epidemiology Research." Journal of Investigative Medicine 58 (1): 6-9.
78. Tishkoff, S. A., and, B. C. Verrelli,. 2003. " Patterns of Human Genetic Diversity: Implications for Human Evolutionary History and Disease." Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics 4: 293-340. (Pubitemid 37392927)
79. Tomalik-Scharte, D., A. Lazar, U. Fuhr, and, J. Kirchheiner,. 2007. " The Clinical Role of Genetic Polymorphisms in Drug-Metabolizing Enzymes." Pharmacogenomics Journal 8 (1): 4-15.
80. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 2000. Healthy People 2010: Understanding and Improving Health. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
81. Voight, B. F., L. J. Scott, V. Steinthorsdottir, A. P. Morris, C. Dina, R. P. Welch, E. Zeggini, C. Huth, Y. S. Aulchenko, G. Thorleifsson, L. J. McCulloch, T. Ferreira, H. Grallert, N. Amin, G. Wu, C. J. Willer, S. Raychaudhuri, S. A. McCarroll, C. Langenberg, O. M. Hofmann, J. Dupuis, L. Qi, A. V. Segre, M. van Hoek, P. Navarro, K. Ardlie, B. Balkau, R. Benediktsson, A. J. Bennett, R. Blagieva, E. Boerwinkle, L. L. Bonnycastle, K. B. Bostrom, B. Bravenboer, S. Bumpstead, N. P. Burtt, G. Charpentier, P. S., Chines, M. Cornelis, D. J. Couper, G. Crawford, A. S. F. Doney, K. S. Elliott, A. L. Elliott, M. R. Erdos, C. S. Fox, C. S. Franklin, M. Ganser, C. Gieger, N. Grarup, T. Green, S. Griffin, C. J. Groves, C. Guiducci, S. Hadjadj, N. Hassanali, C. Herder, B. Isomaa, A. U. Jackson, P. R. V. Johnson, T. Jorgensen, W. H. L. Kao, N. Klopp, A. Kong, P. Kraft, J. Kuusisto, T. Lauritzen, M. Li, A. Lieverse, C. M. Lindgren, V. Lyssenko, M. Marre, T. Meitinger, K. Midthjell, M. A. Morken, N. Narisu, P. Nilsson, K. R. Owen, F. Payne, J. R. B. Perry, A.-K. Petersen, C. Platou, C. Proenca, I. Prokopenko, W. Rathmann, N. W. Rayner, N. R. Robertson, G. Rocheleau, M. Roden, M. J. Sampson, Saxena, R., B. M. Shields, P. Shrader, G. Sigurdsson, T. Sparso, K. Strassburger, H. M. Stringham, Q. Sun, A. J. Swift, B. Thorand, J. Tichet, T. Tuomi, R. M. van Dam, T. W. van Haeften, T. van Herpt, J. V. van Vliet-Ostaptchouk, G. B. Walters, M. N. Weedon, C. Wijmenga, J. Witteman, R. N. Bergman, S. Cauchi, F. S. Collins, A. L. Gloyn, U. Gyllensten, T. Hansen, W. A. Hide, G. A. Hitman, A. Hofman, D. J. Hunter, K. Hveem, M. Laakso, K. L. Mohlke, A. D. Morris, C. N. A., Palmer, P. P., Pramstaller, I. Rudan, E. Sijbrands, L. D. Stein, J. Tuomilehto, A. Uitterlinden, M. Walker, N. J. Wareham, R. M. Watanabe, G. R. Abecasis, B. O. Boehm, H. Campbell, M. J. Daly, A. T. Hattersley, F. B. Hu, J. B. Meigs, J. S. Pankow, O. Pedersen, H. E. Wichmann, I. Barroso, J. C. Florez, T. M. Frayling, L. Groop, R. Sladek, U. Thorsteinsdottir, J. F. Wilson, T. Illig, P. Froguel, C. M. van Duijn, K. Stefansson, and, D. Altshuler, M., Boehnke, and, M. I., McCarthy,. 2010. " Twelve Type 2 Diabetes Susceptibility Loci Identified through Large-Scale Association Analysis." Nature Genetics 42 (7): 579-89.
82. Wilke, R. A., H. Xu, J. C. Denny, D. M. Roden, R. M. Krauss, C. A. McCarty, R. L. Davis, T. Skaar, J. Lamba, and, G. Savova,. 2011. " The Emerging Role of Electronic Medical Records in Pharmacogenomics." Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 89 (3): 379-86.