Epidemiology of Metabolic Syndrome

The Epidemiology of Diabetes Mellitus: Second Edition

Volumn , Issue , 2008, Pages 31-55

  Magliano, Dianna J ^a   Cameron, Adrian ^a   Shaw, Jonathan E ^a   Zimmet, Paul ^a,b  

^a BAKER IDI HEART AND DIABETES INSTITUTE   (Australia)

^b MONASH UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

Author keywords

Abdominal obesity and MetS causative pathway determinant; All cause mortality; Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults (CARDIA); Evolution of MetS; Metabolic syndrome (MetS) or deadly quartet; Metabolic syndrome approach; Metabolic syndrome epidemiology; Metabolic syndrome risk factors; MetS genetics

Indexed keywords

EID: 84861018836     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1002/9780470779750.ch4     Document Type: Chapter

References (138)

1. Eckel, R.H., Grundy, S.M. and Zimmet, P.Z. (2005) The metabolic syndrome. Lancet, 365, 1415-28.
2. Beijer, T., Bosman-Jelgersema, H.A., Dudok van Heel, S.A.C. et al. (1991) Nicolaes Tulp, Six Art Promotions BV, Amsterdam.
3. Morgagni, J.B. (1765/1975) The Seats and Causes of Diseases Investigated by Anatomy (De Sedibus et Causis Morborum per Anatomen Indagata), Remondini, Padova.
4. Kylin, E. (1923) Studien uber das Hypertonie-Hyperglyka 'mie-Hyperurika' miesyndrom. Zen-tralblattfuer Innere Medizin, 44, 105-27.
5. Vague, J. (1947) La differenciation sexuelle, factuer determinant des formes de l'obesite. Presse Medicale, 30, 339-40.
6. Avogaro, P., Crepaldi, G., Enzi, G. and Tiengo, A. (1965) Metabolic aspects of essential obesity. Epatologia, 11, 226-38.
7. Haller, H. (1977) Epidemiology and associated risk factors of hyperlipoproteinemia. Zeitschrift fur die Gesamte innere Medizin und ihre Grenzge-biete, 32, 124-8.
8. Vague, P., Juhan-Vague, I., Chabert, V. et al. (1989) Fat distribution and plasminogen activator inhibitor activity in nondiabetic obese women. Metabolism, 38, 913-15.
9. Reaven, G. (1988) Role of insulin resistance in human disease. Diabetes, 37, 1595-607.
10. Ferrannini, E., Haffner, S., Mitchell, B. et al. (1991) Hyperinsulinaemia: the key feature of a cardiovascular and metabolic syndrome. Dia-betologia, 34, 416-22.
11. American College of Endocrinology Task Force on the Insulin Resistance Syndrome (2003) American College of Endocrinology position statement on the insulin resistance syndrome. Endocrine Practice, 9, 236-52.
12. Aguilar-Salinas, C.A., Rojas, R., Gomez-Perez, F.J. et al. (2005) The metabolic syndrome: a concept hard to define. Archives of Medical Research, 36, 223-31.
13. Matsuda, M., Shimomura, I., Sata, M. et al. (2002) Role of adiponectin in preventing vascular stenosis. The missing link of adipo-vascular axis. The Journal of Biological Chemistry, 277, 37487-91.
14. Stefan, N. and Stumvoll, M. (2002) Adiponectin-its role in metabolism and beyond. Hormone and Metabolic Research, 34, 469-74.
15. Gil-Campos, M., Canete, R.R. and Gil, A. (2004) Adiponectin, the missing link in insulin resistance and obesity. Clinical Nutrition, 23, 963-74.
16. Carr, D.B., Utzschneider, K.M., Hull, R.L. et al. (2004) Intra-abdominal fat is a major determinant of the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III criteria forthe metabolic syndrome. Diabetes, 53, 2087-94.
17. Mantzoros, C.S. (1999) The role of leptin in human obesity and disease: a review of current evidence. Annals of Internal Medicine, 130, 671-80.
18. Kakuma, T., Lee, Y., Higa, M. et al. (2000) Leptin, troglitazone, and the expression of sterol regulatory element binding proteins in liver and pancreatic islets. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 97, 8536-41.
19. Minokoshi, Y. and Kahn, B.B. (2003) Role of AMP-activated protein kinase in leptin-induced fatty acid oxidation in muscle. Biochemical Society Transactions, 31, 196-201.
20. Cases, J.A., Gabriely, I., Ma, X.H. et al. (2001) Physiological increase in plasma leptin markedly inhibits insulin secretion in vivo. Diabetes, 50, 348-52.
21. Seufert, J. (2004) Leptin effects on pancreatic beta-cell gene expression and function. Diabetes, 53 (Suppl 1), S152-8.
22. Hanson, R.L., Imperatore, G., Bennett, P.H. and Knowler, W.C. (2002) Components of the 'metabolic syndrome' and incidence of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes, 51, 3120-7.
23. Wang, J.J., Qiao, Q., Miettinen, M.E. et al. (2004) The metabolic syndrome defined by factor analysis and incident type 2 diabetes in a Chinese population with high postprandial glucose. Diabetes Care, 27, 2429-37.
24. American Association of Clinical Endocrinology (2003) American Association of Clinical Endocrinology position statement on insulin resistance syndrome. Endocrine Practice, 9, 237-52.
25. Cheal, K.L., Abbasi, F., Lamendola, C. et al. (2004) Relationship to insulin resistance of the Adult Treatment Panel III diagnostic criteria for identification of the metabolic syndrome. Diabetes, 53, 1195-200.
26. World Health Organisation (1999) Definition, Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes Mellitus and Its Complications. Part 1: Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes Mellitus, Department of Non-communicable Diseases Surveillance, World Health Organization, Geneva.
27. Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (2001) Executive summary of the third report of The National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III). Journal of the American Medical Association, 285, 2486-97.
28. Balkau, B. and Charles, M.A. (1999) Comment on the provisional report from the WHO consultation. European Group for the Study of Insulin Resistance (EGIR). Diabetic Medicine, 16, 442-3.
29. Zimmet, P., Alberti, G. and Shaw, J. (2005) Mainstreaming the metabolic syndrome: a definitive definition. The Medical Journal of Australia, 183, 175-6.
30. Alberti, K.G., Zimmet, P. and Shaw, J. (2006) Metabolic syndrome-a new world-wide definition. A consensus statement from the International Diabetes Federation. Diabetic Medicine, 23, 469-80.
31. Deprés, J.-P., Nadeau, A., Tremblay, A. et al. (1989) Role of deep abdominal fat in the association between regional adipose tissue distribution and glucose tolerance in obese women. Diabetes, 38, 304-9.
32. Liao, Y., Kwon, S., Shaughnessy, S. et al. (2004) Critical evaluation of Adult Treatment Panel III criteria in identifying insulin resistance with dyslipidemia. Diabetes Care, 27, 978-83.
33. Cameron, A.J., Shaw, J.E. and Zimmet, P.Z. (2004) The metabolic syndrome: prevalence in worldwide populations. Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America, 33, 351-76.
34. Zimmet, P., Alberti, K.G. and Shaw, J. (2001) Global and societal implications of the diabetes epidemic. Nature, 414, 782-7.
35. Lemieux, I., Pascot, A., Couillard, C. et al. (2000) Hypertriglyceridemic waist: a marker of the atherogenic metabolic triad (hyperinsulinemia: hyperapolipoprotein B; small, dense LDL) in men? Circulation, 102, 179-84.
36. Tan, C.E., Ma, S., Wai, D. et al. (2004) Can we apply the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel definition of the metabolic syndrome to Asians? Diabetes Care, 27, 1182-6.
37. Lackland, D., Orchard, T. and Keil, J. (1992) Are race differences in the prevalence of hypertension explained by body mass and fat distribution? A survey in a biracial population. International Journal of Epidemiology, 21, 236-45.
38. Ko, G.T., Chan, J.C., Cockram, C.S. and Woo, J. (1999) Prediction of hypertension, diabetes, dys-lipidaemia or albuminuria using simple anthropometric indexes in Hong Kong Chinese. International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders, 23, 1136-42.
39. Inoue, S., Zimmet, P., Caterson, I. et al. (2000) The Asia-Pacific Perspective: Redefining Obesity and Its Treatment, International Diabetes Institute, Melbourne, pp. 1-56.
40. Genuth, S. (2003) Lowering the criterion for impaired fasting glucose is in order. Diabetes Care, 26, 3331-2.
41. Ford, E.S. (2005) Risks for all-cause mortality, cardiovascular disease, and diabetes associated with the metabolic syndrome: a summary of the evidence. Diabetes Care, 28, 1769-78.
42. Lakka, H.M., Laaksonen, D.E., Lakka, T.A. et al. (2002) The metabolic syndrome and total and cardiovascular disease mortality in middle-aged men. Journal of the American Medical Association, 288, 2709-16.
43. Hunt, K.J., Resendez, R.G., Williams, K. et al. (2004) National Cholesterol Education Program versus World Health Organization metabolic syndrome in relation to all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in the San Antonio Heart Study. Circulation, 110, 1251-7.
44. Ford, E.S. (2004) The metabolic syndrome and mortality from cardiovascular disease and all-causes: findings from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey II Mortality Study. Atherosclerosis, 173, 309-14.
45. Dekker, J.M., Girman, C., Rhodes, T. et al. (2005) Metabolic syndrome and 10-year cardiovascular disease risk in the Hoorn Study. Circulation, 112, 666-73.
46. Hu, G., Qiao, Q., Tuomilehto, J. et al. (2004) Prevalence of the metabolic syndrome and its relation to all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in nondiabetic European men and women. Archives of Internal Medicine, 164, 1066-76.
47. Bruno, G., Merletti, F., Biggeri, A. et al. (2004) Metabolic syndrome as a predictor of all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in type 2 diabetes: the Casale Monferrato Study. Diabetes Care, 27, 2689-94.
48. Butler, J., Rodondi, N., Zhu, Y. et al. (2006) Metabolic syndrome and the risk of cardiovascular disease in older adults. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 47, 1595-602.
49. Katzmarzyk, P.T., Church, T.S. and Blair, S.N. (2004) Cardiorespiratory fitness attenuates the effects of the metabolic syndrome on all-cause and cardiovascular disease mortality in men. Archives of Internal Medicine, 164, 1092-7.
50. Sundstrom, J., Riserus, U., Byberg, L. et al. (2006) Clinical value of the metabolic syndrome for long term prediction of total and cardiovascular mortality: prospective, population based cohort study. British Medical Journal, 332, 878-82.
51. Malik, S., Wong, N.D., Franklin, S.S. et al. (2004) Impact of the metabolic syndrome on mortality from coronary heart disease, cardiovascular disease, and all causes in United States adults. Circulation, 110, 1245-50.
52. Isomaa, B., Almgren, P., Tuomi, T. et al. (2001) Cardiovascular morbidity and mortality associated with the metabolic syndrome. Diabetes Care, 24, 683-9.
53. Trevisan, M., Liu, J., Bahsas, F.B. and Menotti, A. (1998) Syndrome X and mortality: a population-based study. Risk Factor and Life Expectancy Research Group. American Journal of Epidemiology, 148, 958-66.
54. Wannamethee, S.G., Lowe, G.D., Shaper, A.G. et al. (2005) The metabolic syndrome and insulin resistance: relationship to haemostatic and inflammatory markers in older non-diabetic men. Atherosclerosis, 181, 101-8.
55. Stern, M.P., Williams, K., Gonzalez-Villalpando, C. et al. (2004) Does the metabolic syndrome improve identification of individuals at risk of type 2 diabetes and/or cardiovascular disease? Diabetes Care, 27, 2676-81.
56. Grundy, S.M. (2006) Metabolic syndrome: connecting and reconciling cardiovascular and diabetes worlds. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 47, 1093-100.
57. Onat, A., Ceyhan, K., Basar, O. et al. (2002) Metabolic syndrome: major impact on coronary risk in a population with low cholesterol levels-a prospective and cross-sectional evaluation. Atherosclerosis, 165, 285-92.
58. Bonora, E., Targher, G., Formentini, G. et al. (2004) The metabolic syndrome is an independent predictor of cardiovascular disease in type 2 diabetic subjects. Prospective data from the Verona Diabetes Complications Study. Diabetic Medicine, 21, 52-8.
59. McNeill, A.M., Rosamond, W.D., Girman, C.J. et al. (2005) The metabolic syndrome and 11-year risk of incident cardiovascular disease in the atherosclerosis risk in communities study. Diabetes Care, 28, 385-90.
60. Resnick, H.E., Jones, K., Ruotolo, G. et al. (2003) Insulin resistance, the metabolic syndrome, and risk of incident cardiovascular disease in nondiabetic American Indians: the Strong Heart Study. Diabetes Care, 26, 861-7.
61. Sattar, N., Gaw, A., Scherbakova, O. et al. (2003) Metabolic syndrome with and without C-reactive protein as a predictor of coronary heart disease and diabetes in the West of Scotland Coronary Prevention Study. Circulation, 108, 414-19.
62. Girman, C.J., Rhodes, T., Mercuri, M. et al. (2004) The metabolic syndrome and risk of major coronary events in the Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study (4S) and the Air Force/Texas Coronary Atherosclerosis Prevention Study (AFCAPS/TexCAPS). The American Journal of Cardiology, 93, 136-41.
63. Ridker, P.M., Buring, J.E., Cook, N.R. and Rifai, N. (2003) C-reactive protein, the metabolic syndrome, and risk of incident cardiovascular events: an 8-year follow-up of 14 719 initially healthy American women. Circulation, 107, 391-7.
64. Scuteri, A., Najjar, S.S., Morrell, C.H. and Lakkatta, E.G. (2005) The metabolic syndrome in older individuals: prevalence and prediction of cardiovascular events: the Cardiovascular Health Study. Diabetes Care, 28, 882-7.
65. He, Y., Jiang, B., Wang, J. et al. (2006) Prevalence of the metabolic syndrome and its relation to cardiovascular disease in an elderly Chinese population. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 47, 1588-94.
66. Athyros, V.G., Mikhailidis, D.P., Papageorgiou, A.A. et al. (2004) Prevalence of atherosclerotic vascular disease among subjects with the metabolic syndrome with or without diabetes mellitus: the METS-GREECE Multicentre Study. Current Medical Research and Opinion, 20, 1691-701.
67. Lorenzo, C., Serrano-Rios, M., Martinez-Larrad, M.T. et al. (2006) Geographic variations of the International Diabetes Federation and the National Cholesterol Education Program-Adult Treatment Panel III definitions of the metabolic syndrome in nondiabetic subjects. Diabetes Care, 29, 685-91.
68. Lawlor, D.A., Smith, G.D. and Ebrahim, S. (2006) Does the new International Diabetes Federation definition of the metabolic syndrome predict CHD any more strongly than older definitions? Findings from the British Women's Heart and Health Study. Diabetologia, 49, 41-8.
69. Klein, B.E., Klein, R. and Lee, K.E. (2002) Components of the metabolic syndrome and risk of cardiovascular disease and diabetes in Beaver Dam. Diabetes Care, 25, 1790-4.
70. Schmidt, M.I., Duncan, B.B., Bang, H. et al. (2005) Identifying individuals at high risk for diabetes: The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study. Diabetes Care, 28, 2013-18.
71. Lorenzo, C., Okoloise, M., Williams, K. et al. (2003) The metabolic syndrome as predictor of type 2 diabetes: the San Antonio Heart Study. Diabetes Care, 26, 3153-9.
72. Laaksonen, D.E., Lakka, H.M., Niskanen, L.K. et al. (2002) Metabolic syndrome and development of diabetes mellitus: application and validation of recently suggested definitions of the metabolic syndrome in a prospective cohort study. American Journal of Epidemiology, 156, 1070-7.
73. Wang, J.J., Li, H.B., Kinnunen, L. et al. (2006) How well does the metabolic syndrome defined by five definitions predict incident diabetes and incident coronary heart disease in a Chinese population? Atherosclerosis, 192 (1), 161-8.
74. McKeown, N.M., Meigs, J.B., Liu, S. et al. (2004) Carbohydrate nutrition, insulin resistance, and the prevalence of the metabolic syndrome in the Framingham Offspring Cohort. Diabetes Care, 27, 538-46.
75. Palaniappan, L., Carnethon, M.R., Wang, Y. et al. (2004) Predictors of the incident metabolic syndrome in adults: the Insulin Resistance Atherosclerosis Study. Diabetes Care, 27, 788-93.
76. Carnethon, M.R., Loria, C.M., Hill, J.O. et al. (2004) Risk factors for the metabolic syndrome: the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults (CARDIA) study, 1985-2001. Diabetes Care, 27, 2707-15.
77. Pollex, R.L., Hanley, A.J.G., Zinman, B. et al. (2006) Metabolic syndrome in aboriginal Canadians: prevalence and genetic associations. Atherosclerosis, 184, 121-9.
78. Simmons, D. and Thompson, C.F. (2004) Prevalence of the metabolic syndrome among adult New Zealanders of Polynesian and European descent. Diabetes Care, 27, 3002-4.
79. Abdul-Rahim, H.F., Husseini, A., Bjertness, E. et al. (2001) The metabolic syndrome in the West Bank population: an urban-rural comparison. Diabetes Care, 24, 275-9.
80. Adams, R.J., Appleton, S., Wilson, D.H. et al. (2005) Population comparison of two clinical approaches to the metabolic syndrome: implications of the new International Diabetes Federation consensus definition. Diabetes Care, 28, 2777-9.
81. Alexander, C.M., Landsman, P.B., Teutsch, S.M. and Haffer, S.M. (2003) Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, National Cholesterol Education Program. NCEP-defined metabolic syndrome, diabetes, and prevalence of coronary heart disease among NHANES III participants age 50 years and older. Diabetes, 52, 1210-14.
82. Al-Lawati, J.A., Al Riyami, A.M., Mohammed, A.J. and Jousilahti, P. (2002) Increasing prevalence of diabetes mellitus in Oman. Diabetic Medicine, 19, 954-7.
83. Al-Lawati, J.A., Mohammed, A.J., Al-Hinai, H.Q. and Jousilahti, P. (2003) Prevalence of the metabolic syndrome among Omani adults. Diabetes Care, 26, 1781-5.
84. Araneta, M.R., Wingard, D.L. and Barrett-Connor, E. (2002) Type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome in Filipina-American women: a high-risk nonobese population. Diabetes Care, 25, 494-9.
85. Athyros, V.G., Ganotakis, E.S., Elisaf, M. and Makhailidis, D.P. (2005) The prevalence of the metabolic syndrome using the National Cholesterol Educational Program and International Diabetes Federation definitions. Current Medical Research and Opinion, 21, 1157-9.
86. Azizi, F., Salehi, P., Etemadi, A. and Zahedi-Asl, S. (2003) Prevalence of metabolic syndrome in an urban population: Tehran Lipid and Glucose Study. Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice, 61, 29-37.
87. Balkau, B., Charles, M.A., Drivsholm, T. et al. (2002) Frequency of the WHO metabolic syndrome in European cohorts, and an alternative definition of an insulin resistance syndrome. Diabetes and Metabolism, 28, 364-76.
88. Balkau, B., Eschwege, E., Tichet, J. et al. (1997) Proposed criteria for the diagnosis of diabetes: evidence from a French epidemiological study (D.E.S.I.R). Diabetes and Metabolism, 23, 428-34.
89. Bo, S., Gentile, L., Ciccone, G. et al. (2005) The metabolic syndrome and high C-reactive protein: prevalence and differences by sex in a southern-European population-based cohort. Diabetes-Metabolism Research and Reviews, 21, 515-24.
90. Boronat, M., Chirino, R., Varillas, V.F. et al. (2005) Prevalence of the metabolic syndrome in the island of Gran Canaria: comparison of three major diagnostic proposals. Diabetic Medicine, 22, 1751-6.
91. Cameron, A.J., Shaw, J.E., Zimmet, P.Z. et al. (2003) Comparison of WHO and NCEP metabolic syndrome definitions over 5 years in Mauritius. Diabetologia, 46, A3068.
92. Deepa, R., Shanthirani, C.S., Premalatha, G. et al. (2002) Prevalence of insulin resistance syndrome in a selected south Indian population-the Chennai Urban Population Study-7 [CUPS-7]. Indian Journal of Medical Research, 115, 118-27.
93. Deepa, M., Farooq, S., Datta, M. et al. (2006) Prevalence of metabolic syndrome using WHO, ATPIII and IDF definitions in Asian Indians: the Chennai Urban Rural Epidemiology Study. Diabetes/Metabolism Research and Reviews, 23, 127-34
94. Drivsholm, T., Ibsen, H., Schroll, M. et al. (2001) Increasing prevalence of diabetes mellitus and impaired glucose tolerance among 60-year-old Danes. Diabetic Medicine, 18, 126-32.
95. Ford, E.S. (2005) Prevalence of the metabolic syndrome defined by the International Diabetes Federation among adults in the U.S. Diabetes Care, 28, 2745-9.
96. Gu, D., Reynolds, K., Wu, X. et al. (2005) Prevalence of the metabolic syndrome and overweight among adults in China. Lancet, 365, 1398-405.
97. Guerrero-Romero, F. and Rodriguez-Moran, M. (2005) Concordance between the 2005 International Diabetes Federation definition for diagnosing metabolic syndrome with the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III and the World Health Organization definitions. Diabetes Care, 28, 2588-9.
98. Gupta, A., Gupta, R., Sarna, M. et al. (2003) Prevalence of diabetes, impaired fasting glucose and insulin resistance syndrome in an urban Indian population. Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice, 61, 69-76.
99. Hedblad, B., Nilsson, P., Janzon, L. and Berglund, G. (2000) Relation between insulin resistance and carotid intima-media thickness and stenosis in non-diabetic subjects. Results from a crosssectional study in Malmo, Sweden. Diabetic Medicine, 17, 299-307.
100. Ilanne-Parikka, P., Eriksson, J.G., Lindstrom, J. et al. (2004) Prevalence of the metabolic syndrome and its components: findings from a Finnish general population sample and the Diabetes Prevention Study cohort. Diabetes Care, 27, 2135-40.
101. Ko, G.T.-C., Cockram, C.S., Chow, C.-C. et al. (2005) High prevalence of metabolic syndrome in Hong Kong Chinese-comparison of three diagnostic criteria. Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice, 69, 160-8.
102. Lean, M.E., Han, T.S. and Seidell, J.C. (1998) Impairment of health and quality of life in people with large waist circumference. Lancet, 351, 853-6.
103. Lorenzo, C., Serrano-Rios, M., Martinez-Larrad, M.T. et al. (2001) Was the historic contribution of Spain to the Mexican gene pool partially responsible for the higher prevalence of type 2 diabetes in Mexican-origin populations? The Spanish Insulin Resistance Study Group, the San Antonio Heart Study, and the Mexico City Diabetes Study. Diabetes Care, 24, 2059-64.
104. Marques-Vidal, P., Mazoyer, E., Bongard, V. et al. (2002) Prevalence of insulin resistance syndrome in southwestern France and its relationship with inflammatory and hemostatic markers. Diabetes Care, 25, 1371-7.
105. Meigs, J.B., Wilson, P.W., Nathan, D.M. et al. (2003) Prevalence and characteristics of the metabolic syndrome in the San Antonio Heart and Framingham Offspring Studies. Diabetes, 52, 2160-7.
106. Mohamed-Ali, V., Gould, M.M., Gillies, S. et al. (1995) Association of proinsulin-like molecules with lipids and fibrinogen in non-diabetic subjects-evidence against a modulating role for insulin. Diabetologia, 38, 1110-16.
107. Oh, J.-Y., Hong, Y.S., Sung, Y.-A. and Barrett-Connor, E. (2004) Prevalence and factor analysis of metabolic syndrome in an urban Korean population. Diabetes Care, 27, 2027-32.
108. Ramachandran, A., Snehalatha, C., Satyavani, K. et al. (2003) Metabolic syndrome in urban Asian Indian adults-a population study using modified ATP III criteria. Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice, 60, 199-204.
109. Shiwaku, K., Nogi, A., Kitajima, K. et al. (2005) Prevalence of the metabolic syndrome using the modified ATP III definitions for workers in Japan, Korea and Mongolia. Journal of Occupational Health, 47, 126-35.
110. Son, L.N.T.D., Kunii, D., Hung, N.T.K. et al. (2005) The metabolic syndrome: prevalence and risk factors in the urban population of Ho Chi Minh City. Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice, 67, 243-50.
111. Song, J., Kim, E., Shin, C. et al. (2004) Prevalence of the metabolic syndrome among South Korean adults: the Ansan study [see comment]. Diabetic Medicine, 21, 1154-5.
112. Thomas, G.N., Ho, S.-Y., Janus, E.D. et al. (2005) The US National Cholesterol Education Programme Adult Treatment Panel III (NCEP ATP III) prevalence of the metabolic syndrome in a Chinese population. Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice, 67, 251-7.
113. Tillin, T., Forouhi, N., Johnston, D.G. et al. (2005) Metabolic syndrome and coronary heart disease in South Asians, African-Caribbeans and white Europeans: a UK population-based cross-sectional study. Diabetologia, 48, 649-56.
114. Villegas, R., Perry, I.J., Creagh, D. et al. (2003) Prevalence of the metabolic syndrome in middle-aged men and women. Diabetes Care, 26, 3198-9.
115. Vozarova de Courten, B., de Courten, M., Hanson, R.L. et al. (2003) Higher prevalence of type 2 diabetes, metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular diseases in gypsies than in non-gypsies in Slovakia. Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice, 62, 95-103.
116. Zavaroni, I., Bonini, L., Gasparini, P. et al. (1999) Hyperinsulinemia in a normal population as a predictor of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, hypertension, and coronary heart disease: the Barilla factory revisited. Metabolism, 48, 989-94.
117. Lorenzo, C., Williams, K., Hunt, K.J. and Haffner, S.M. (2006) Trend in the prevalence of the metabolic syndrome and its impact on cardiovascular disease incidence: the San Antonio Heart Study. Diabetes Care, 29, 625-30.
118. Ford, E.S. (2004) Prevalence of the metabolic syndrome in US populations. Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America, 33, 333-50.
119. Csabi, G., Torok, K., Jeges, S. and Molnar, D. (2000) Presence of metabolic cardiovascular syndrome in obese children. European Journal of Pediatrics, 159, 91-4.
120. Invitti, C., Maffeis, C., Gilardini, L. et al. (2006) Metabolic syndrome in obese Caucasian children: prevalence using WHO-derived criteria and association with nontraditional cardiovascular risk factors. International Journal of Obesity (London), 30, 627-33.
121. Cruz, M.L. and Goran, M.I. (2004) The metabolic syndrome in children and adolescents. Current Diabetes Reports, 4, 53-62.
122. Csabi, G., Kozari, A., Farid, G. and Molnar, D. (1995) Multi-metabolic syndrome in obese children. Orvosi Hetilap, 136, 595-7.
123. Cook, S., Weitzman, M., Auinger, P. et al. (2003) Prevalence of a metabolic syndrome phenotype in adolescents: findings from the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988-1994. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 157, 821-7.
124. Duncan, G.E., Li, S.M. and Zhou, X.-H. (2004) Prevalence and trends of a metabolic syndrome phenotype among U.S. adolescents, 1999-2000. Diabetes Care, 27, 2438-43.
125. Goodman, E., Daniels, S.R., Morrison, J.A. et al. (2004) Contrasting prevalence of and demographic disparities in the World Health Organization and National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III definitions of metabolic syndrome among adolescents [see comment]. The Journal of Pediatrics, 145, 445-51.
126. Hu, F.B., Manson, J.E., Stampfer, M.J. et al. (2001) Diet, lifestyle, and the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus in women. The New England Journal of Medicine, 345, 790-7.
127. Liese, A.D., Mayer-Davis, E.J., Tyroler, H.A. et al. (1997) Familial components of the multiple metabolic syndrome: the ARIC study. Diabetologia, 40, 963-70.
128. Xiang, A.H., Azen, S.P., Raffel, L.J. et al. (2001) Evidence for joint genetic control of insulin sensitivity and systolic blood pressure in Hispanic families with a hypertensive proband. Circulation, 103, 78-83.
129. DeStefano, A.L., Larson, M.G., Mitchell, G.F. et al. (2004) Genome-wide scan for pulse pressure in the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute's Framingham Heart Study. Hypertension, 44, 152-5.
130. Snieder, H., van Doornen, L.J. and Boomsma, D.I. (1999) Dissecting the genetic architecture of lipids, lipoproteins, and apolipoproteins: lessons from twin studies. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology, 19, 2826-34.
131. Forsblom, C.M., Kanninen, T., Lehtovirta, M. et al. (1999) Heritability of albumin excretion rate in families of patients with type II diabetes. Diabetologia, 42, 1359-66.
132. Mitchell, B.D., Kammerer, C.M., Mahaney, M.C. et al. (1996) Genetic analysis of the IRS. Pleiotropic effects of genes influencing insulin levels on lipoprotein and obesity measures. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology, 16, 281-8.
133. Reinhard, W., Holmer, S.R., Fischer, M. et al. (2006) Association of the metabolic syndrome with early coronary disease in families with frequent myocardial infarction. The American Journal of Cardiology, 97, 964-7.
134. Neel, J.V. (1962) Diabetes mellitus: a 'thrifty' genotype rendered detrimental by 'progress'? American Journal of Human Genetics, 14, 353-62.
135. Zimmet, P., McCarty, D. and de Courten, M. (1997) The global epidemiology of non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus and the metabolic syndrome. Journal of Diabetes and Its Complications, 11, 60-8.
136. Melander, O., Mattiasson, I., Marsal, K. et al. (1999) Heredity for hypertension influences intrauterine growth and the relation between fetal growth and adult blood pressure. Journal of Hypertension, 17, 1557-61.
137. Hattersley, A.T., Beards, F., Ballantyne, E. et al. (1998) Mutations in the glucokinase gene of the fetus result in reduced birth weight. Nature Genetics, 19, 268-70.
138. Zimmet, P., Boyko, E., Collier, G. and de Courten, M. (1999) The etiology of the metabolic syndrome-potential role of insulin resistance, leptin resistance and other players, in The Metabolic Syndrome X, (eds B. Hansen, J. Saye and L. Wennogle), New York Academy of Sciences, New York, pp. 25-44.