Differences in self-talk frequency as a function of age, only-child, and imaginary childhood companion status

Journal of Research in Personality

Volumn 46, Issue 3, 2012, Pages 326-333

  Brinthaupt, Thomas M ^a   Dove, Christian T ^a  

^a MIDDLE TENNESSEE STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Age differences; Imaginary childhood companion; Only child; Self regulation; Self talk frequency; Self talk scale

Indexed keywords

EID: 84860552286     PISSN: 00926566     EISSN: 10957251     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.jrp.2012.03.003     Document Type: Article

References (65)

1. Arnett J. Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. American Psychologist 2000, 55(5):469-480. 10.1037/0003-066X.55.5.469.
2. Beck A.T. Cognitive therapy and the emotional disorders 1976, New American Library, New York.
3. Berk L.E. Children's private speech: An overview of theory and the status of research. Private speech: From social interaction to self-regulation 1992, 17-53. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ. R.M. Diaz, L.E. Berk (Eds.).
4. Berk L.E., Mann T.D., Ogan A.T. Make-believe play: Wellspring for development of self-regulation. Play = learning: How play motivates and enhances children's cognitive and social-emotional growth 2006, 74-100. Oxford University Press, New York, NY. D.G. Singer, R. Golinkoff, K. Hirsh-Pasek, D.G. Singer, R. Golinkoff, K. Hirsh-Pasek (Eds.).
5. Bouldin P. An investigation of the fantasy predisposition and fantasy style of children with imaginary companions. Journal of Genetic Psychology 2006, 167(1):17-29. 10.3200/GNTP.167.1.17-29.
6. Brinthaupt T.M., Hein M.B., Kramer T.E. The Self-Talk Scale: Development, factor analysis, and validation. Journal of Personality Assessment 2009, 91:82-92. 10.1080/00223890802484498.
7. Brinthaupt T.M., Pennington J.T. Development of a departmental data archive for teaching and research. Teaching of Psychology 2005, 32:257-259.
8. Carver C.S., Scheier M.F. On the self-regulation of behavior 1998, Cambridge University Press, New York.
9. Crone E.A. Executive functions in adolescence. Inferences from brain and behavior. Developmental Science 2009, 12(6):825-830. 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2009.00918.x.
10. Private speech: From social interaction to self-regulation 1992, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ. R.M. Diaz, L.E. Berk (Eds.).
11. Duncan R., Tarulli D. On the persistence of private speech: Empirical and theoretical considerations. Private speech, executive functioning, and the development of verbal self-regulation 2009, 176-187. Cambridge University Press, New York. A. Winsler, C. Fernyhough, I. Montero (Eds.).
12. Eigsti I., Zayas V., Mischel W., Shoda Y., Ayduk O., Dadlani M.B., et al. Predicting cognitive control from preschool to late adolescence and young adulthood. Psychological Science 2006, 17(6):478-484. 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01732.x.
13. Falbo T. Only children in the United States and China. Applied Social Psychology Annual 1987, 7:159-183.
14. Falbo T., Polit D.F. Quantitative review of the only child literature: Research evidence and theory development. Psychological Bulletin 1986, 100:176-189. 10.1037/0033-2909.100.2.176.
15. Falbo T., Poston D.L. The academic, personality, and physical outcomes of only children in China. Child Development 1993, 64:18-35. 10.2307/1131435.
16. Felsten G. Gender and coping: Use of distinct strategies and associations with stress and depression. Anxiety, Stress & Coping: An International Journal 1998, 11(4):289-309. 10.1080/10615809808248316.
17. Fernyhough C., Bland K., Meins E., Coltheart M. Imaginary companions and young children's responses to ambiguous auditory stimuli: Implications for typical and atypical development. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 2007, 48(11):1094-1101. 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01789.x.
18. Freund A.M., Nikitin J., Ritter J.O. Psychological consequences of longevity: The increasing importance of self-regulation in old age. Human Development 2009, 52(1):1-37. 10.1159/000189213.
19. Gleason T.R., Jarudi R.N., Cheek J.M. Imagination, personality, and imaginary companions. Social Behavior and Personality 2003, 31(7):721-737. 10.2224/sbp. 2003, 31(7), pp. 721.
20. Hardy J. Speaking clearly: A critical review of the self-talk literature. Psychology of Sport and Exercise 2006, 7:81-97. 10.1016/j.psychsport.2005. 04.002.
21. Hardy J., Oliver E., Tod D. A framework for the study and application of self-talk in sport. Advances in applied sport psychology: A review 2008, 37-74. Routledge, London. S.D. Mellalieu, S. Hanton (Eds.).
22. Heavey C.L., Hurlburt R.T. The phenomena of inner experience. Consciousness and Cognition 2008, 17:798-810. 10.1016/j.concog.200712.006.
23. Hoff E.V. Imaginary companions, creativity, and self-image in middle childhood. Creativity Research Journal 2005, 17(2-3):167-180. 10.1207/s15326934crj1702&3_4.
24. Hogan A.M., Vargha-Khadem F., Kirkham F.J., Baldeweg T. Maturation of action monitoring from adolescence to adulthood: An ERP study. Developmental Science 2005, 8(6):525-534. 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2005.00444.x.
25. Jiao S., Ji G., Jing Q. Comparative study of behavioral qualities of only children and sibling children. Child Development 1986, 57(2):357-361. 10.2307/1130591.
26. Kendall P.C., Howard B.L., Hays R.C. Self-referent speech and psychopathology: The balance of positive and negative thinking. Cognitive Therapy and Research 1989, 13:583-598.
27. Kidd E., Rogers P., Rogers C. The personality correlates of adults who had imaginary comparisons in childhood. Psychological Reports 2010, 107(1):163-172. 10.2466/02.04.10.PR0.107.4.163-172.
28. Kitzmann K.M., Cohen R., Lockwood R.L. Are only children missing out? Comparison of the peer-related social competence of only children and siblings. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 2002, 19(3):299-316. 10.1177/0265407502193001.
29. Kray J., Eber J., Karbach J. Verbal self-instructions in task switching: A compensatory tool for action-control deficits in childhood and old age?. Developmental Science 2008, 11(2):223-236. 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2008.00673.x.
30. Kray J., Eber J., Lindenberger U. Age differences in executive functioning across the lifespan: The role of verbalization in task preparation. Acta Psychologica 2004, 115(2-3):143-165. 10.1016/j.actpsy.2003.12.001.
31. Leary M.L. The curse of the self: Self-awareness, egotism, and the quality of human life 2004, Oxford University Press, New York.
32. Lee S.W.F. Exploring seven- to eight-year olds' use of self-talk strategies. Early Childhood Development and Care 2011, 181:847-856. 10.1080/03004430.2010.494253.
33. Liu C., Munakata T., Onuoha F.N. Mental health condition of the only-child: A study of urban and rural high school students in China. Adolescence 2005, 40:817-830.
34. Luria A.R. Speech development and the formation of mental processes. A handbook of contemporary Soviet psychology 1969, 121-162. Basic Books, New York. M. Cole, I. Maltzman (Eds.).
35. MacKay D.G. Constraints on theories of inner speech. Auditory imagery 1992, 121-149. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ. D. Reisberg (Ed.).
36. McElwain N.L., Cox M.J., Burchinal M.R., Macfie J. Differentiating among insecure mother-infant attachment classifications: A focus on child-friend interaction and exploration during solitary play at 36 months. Attachment and Human Development 2003, 5(2):136-164. 10.1080/1461673031000108513.
37. Miller T.W. Life stress and transitions in the life span. Handbook of stressful transitions across the lifespan 2010, 3-17. Springer Science + Business Media, New York. T.W. Miller (Ed.).
38. Mischel W., Cantor N., Feldman S. Principles of self-regulation: The nature of willpower and self-control. Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles 1996, 329-360. The Guilford Press, New York. E.T. Higgins, A.W. Kruglanski (Eds.).
39. Mõttus R., Indus K., Allik J. Accuracy of only children stereotype. Journal of Research in Personality 2008, 42(4):1047-1052. 10.1016/j.jrp.2007.10.006.
40. Newman P.R., Newman B.M. Self-socialization: A case study of a parachute child. Adolescence 2009, 44:523-537.
41. Nyman L. The identification of birth order personality attributes. Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied 1995, 129:51-59.
42. Pearson D.D., Rouse H.H., Doswell S.S., Ainsworth C.C., Dawson O.O., Simms K.K., et al. Prevalence of imaginary companions in a normal child population. Child: Care, Health and Development 2001, 27(1):13-22. 10.1046/j.1365-2214.2001.00167.
43. Pesce R.C., Harding C.G. Imaginary audience behavior and its relationship to operational thought and social experience. The Journal of Early Adolescence 1986, 6(1):83-94. 10.1177/0272431686061008.
44. Piaget J. The language and thought of the child 1924/1959, Humanities Press, New York.
45. Roberts L.C., Blanton P. 'I always knew mom and dad loved me best': Experiences of only children. The Journal of Individual Psychology 2001, 57:125-140.
46. Roby A.C., Kidd E. The referential communication skills of children with imaginary companions. Developmental Science 2008, 11(4):531-540. 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2008.00699.x.
47. Schwartz R.M., Garamoni G.L. Cognitive balance and psychopathology: Evaluation of an information processing model of positive and negative states of mind. Clinical Psychology Review 1989, 9:271-294.
48. Seiffge-Krenke I. Imaginary companions in adolescence. Sign of a deficient or positive development?. Journal of Adolescence 1997, 20(2):137-154. 10.1006/jado.1996.0072.
49. Sood E.D., Kendall P.C. Assessing anxious self-talk in youth: The negative affectivity self-statement questionnaire-anxiety scale. Cognitive Therapy and Research 2007, 31:603-618. 10.1007/s10608-006-9043-8.
50. Spence S.H., Donovan C., Brechman-Toussaint M. Social skills, social outcomes, and cognitive features of childhood social phobia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 1999, 108:211-221.
51. Steinberg L., Monahan K.C. Age differences in resistance to peer influence. Developmental Psychology 2007, 43(6):1531-1543. 10.1037/0012-1649.43.6.1531.
52. Sweeney P.D., Moreland R.L., Gruber K.L. Gender differences in performance attributions: Students' explanations for personal success or failure. Sex Roles 1982, 8(4):359-373. 10.1007/BF00287275.
53. Taylor M. Imaginary companions and the children who create them 1999, Oxford University Press, New York, NY.
54. Taylor M., Hodges S.D., Kohanyi A. The illusion of independent agency: Do adult fiction writers experience their characters as having minds of their own?. Imagination, Cognition and Personality 2003, 22:361-380. 10.2190/FTG3-Q9T0-7U26-5Q5X.
55. Taylor M., Hulette A.C., Dishion T.J. Longitudinal outcomes of young high-risk adolescents with imaginary companions. Developmental Psychology 2010, 46(6):1632-1636. 10.1037/a0019815.
56. Taylor M., Shawber A.B., Mannering A.M. Children's imaginary companions: What is it like to have an invisible friend?. Handbook of imagination and mental simulation 2009, 211-224. Psychology Press, New York. K.D. Markman, W.P. Klein, J.A. Suhr (Eds.).
57. Tod D., Hardy J., Oliver E. Effects of self-talk: A systematic review. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology 2011, 33(5):666-687.
58. Trionfi G., Reese E. A good story: Children with imaginary companions create richer narratives. Child Development 2009, 80(4):1301-1313. 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01333.x.
59. Vartanian L., Powlishta K.K. Demand characteristics and self-report measures of imaginary audience sensitivity: Implications for interpreting age differences in adolescent egocentrism. The Journal of Genetic Psychology: Research and Theory on Human Development 2001, 162(2):187-200. 10.1080/00221320109597960.
60. Vygotsky, L. S. (1987). The collected works of L.S. Vygotsky: Vol. 1, Problems of general psychology. New York: Plenum. (N. Minick, Trans.).
61. Wang Q., Leichtman M.D., White S.H. Childhood memory and self- description in young Chinese adults: The impact of growing up an only child. Cognition 1998, 69:73-103. 10.1016/S0010-0277(98)00061-4.
62. Watson P.J., Biderman M.D. Failure of only-child status to predict narcissism. Perceptual and Motor Skills 1989, 69:1346.
63. Private speech, executive functioning, and the development of verbal self-regulation 2009, Cambridge University Press, New York. A. Winsler, C. Fernyhough, I. Montero (Eds.).
64. Winsler A., Naglieri J. Overt and covert verbal problem solving strategies: Developmental trends in use, awareness, and relations with task performance in children aged 5 to 17. Child Development 2003, 74:659-678. 10.1111/1467-8624.00561.
65. The development of self-regulation through private speech 1979, Wiley, New York. G. Zivin (Ed.).