Effects of self-talk: A systematic review

Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology

Volumn 33, Issue 5, 2011, Pages 666-687

  Tod, David ^a   Hardy, James ^b   Oliver, Emily ^a  

^a ABERYSTWYTH UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

^b BANGOR UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Applied sport psychology; Mental preparation; Psychological skills training

Indexed keywords

EID: 84856422694     PISSN: 08952779     EISSN: 15432904     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1123/jsep.33.5.666     Document Type: Review

References (88)

1. Anderson, A., Vogel, P., & Albrecht, R. (1999). The effect of instructional self-talk on the overhand throw. Physical Educator, 56, 215-221.
2. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman.
3. Barling, J., & Bresgi, I. (1982). Cognitive factors in athletic (swimming) performance: A re-examination. The Journal of General Psychology, 107, 227-231.
4. Beck, A.T. (1976). Cognitive therapy and the emotional disorders. Madison, WI: IUP.
5. Beedie, C.J., Terry, P.C., & Lane, A.M. (2000). The profile of mood states and athletic performance: Two meta-analyses. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 12, 49-68.
6. Bell, J.J., & Hardy, J. (2009). Effects of attentional focus on skilled performance in golf. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 21, 163-177.
7. Brinthaupt, T.M., Hein, M.B., & Kramer, T.E. (2009). The self-talk scale: Development, factor analysis, and validation. Journal of Personality Assessment, 91, 82-92.
8. Bull, S.J., Albinson, J.G., & Shambrook, C.J. (1996). The mental game plan: Getting psyched for sport. Eastbourne, UK: Sports Dynamics.
9. Chroni, S., Perkos, S., & Theodorakis, Y. (2007). Function and preferences of motivational and instructional self-talk for adolescent basketball players. Athletic Insight, 9, 19-31. Retrieved 4 December, 2010, from http://www.athleticinsight.com/Vol9Iss1/BasketballPDF.pdf
10. Chiu, S., & Alexander, P.A. (2000). The motivational function of preschoolers' private speech. Discourse Processes, 30, 133-152.
11. Coker, C.A., & Fischman, M.G. (2010). Motor skill learning for effective coaching and performance. In J.M. Williams (Ed.), Applied sport psychology: Personal growth to peak performance (6th ed., pp. 21-41). Boston: McGrawHill.
12. Conroy, D.E., & Metzler, J.N. (2004). Patterns of self-talk associated with different forms of competitive anxiety. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 26, 69-89.
13. Crosbie, J. (1993). Interrupted time-series analysis with brief single-subject data. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 61, 966-974.
14. Cutton, D.M., & Landin, D. (1999). The comparative effects of two cognitive learning strategies on learning the tennis forehand. Journal of Sport Pedagogy, 5, 33-53.
15. Cutton, D.M., & Landin, D. (2001). The effects of a cognitive learning strategy and augmented feedback on learning the tennis forehand. Journal of Sport Pedagogy, 7, 16-35.
16. Cutton, D.M., & Landin, D. (2007). The effects of self-talk and augmented feedback on learning the tennis forehand. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 19, 288-303.
17. Dagrou, E., & Gauvin, L. (1992). Le discours interne: un mediateur de la performance. Science & Sports, 7, 101-106.
18. Dugdale, J.R., & Eklund, R.C. (2002). Do not pay any attention to the umpires: Thought suppression and task-relevant focusing strategies. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 24, 306-319.
19. Edwards, C., Tod, D., & McGuigan, M. (2008). Self-talk influences vertical jump performance and kinematics in male rugby union players. Journal of Sports Sciences, 26, 1459-1465.
20. Fitts, P.M., & Posner, M.I. (1967). Human performance. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.
21. Gardner, F., & Moore, Z. (2006). Clinical sport psychology. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
22. Goodger, K., Gorely, T., Lavallee, D., & Harwood, C. (2007). Burnout in sport: A systematic review. The Sport Psychologist, 21, 127-151.
23. Goudas, M., Hatzidimitriou, V., & Kikidi, M. (2006). The effects of self-talk on throwingand jumping-events performance. Hellenic Journal of Psychology, 3, 105-116.
24. Guyatt, G.H., Oxman, A.D., Vist, G.E., Kunz, R., Falck-Ytter, Y., Alonso-Coello, P., et al., for the GRADE Working Group. (2008). GRADE: an emerging consensus on rating quality of evidence and strength of recommendations. British Medical Journal, 336, 924-926.
25. Hamilton, R.A., Scott, D., & MacDougall, M.P. (2007). Assessing the effectiveness of self-talk interventions on endurance performance. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 19, 226-239.
26. Harbalis, T., Hatzigeorgiadis, A., & Theodorakis, Y. (2008). Self-talk in wheelchair basketball: The effects of an intervention program on dribbling and passing performance. International Journal of Special Education, 23, 62-69.
27. Hardy, J. (2006). Speaking clearly: A critical review of the self-talk literature. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 7, 81-97.
28. Hardy, J., Hall, C.R., & Alexander, M.R. (2001). Exploring self-talk and affective states in sport. Journal of Sports Sciences, 19, 469-475.
29. Hardy, J., Hall, C.R., Gibbs, C., & Greenslade, C. (2005). Self-talk and gross motor skill performance: An experimental approach? Athletic Insight, 7, 1-13. Retrieved 26 August, 2005, from http://www.athleticinsight.com/Vol7Iss2/SelfTalkPerformance.htm
30. Hardy, J., Oliver, E., & Tod, D. (2009). A framework for the study and application of self-talk within sport. In S.D. Mellalieu & S. Hanton (Eds.), Advances in applied sport psychology: A review (pp. 37-74). London: Routledge.
31. Hardy, L., Jones, G., & Gould, D. (1996). Understanding psychological preparation for sport: Theory and practice of elite performers. Chichester, England: Wiley.
32. Harvey, D.T., Van Raalte, J.L., & Brewer, B.W. (2002). Relationship between self-talk and golf performance. International Sports Journal, 6, 84-91.
33. Hatzigeorgiadis, A., Theodorakis, Y., & Zourbanos, N. (2004). Self-talk in the swimming pool: The effects of self-talk on thought content and performance on water-polo tasks. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 16, 138-150.
34. Hatzigeorgiadis, A., Zourbanos, N., Goltsios, C., & Theodorakis, Y. (2008). Investigating the functions of self-talk: The effects of motivational self-talk on self-efficacy and performance in young tennis players. The Sport Psychologist, 22, 458-471.
35. Hatzigeorgiadis, A., Zourbanos, N., Mpoumpaki, S., & Theodorakis, Y. (2009). Mechanisms underlying the self-talk-performance relationship: The effects of motivational self-talk on self-confidence and anxiety. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 10, 186-192.
36. Hatzigeorgiadis, A., Zourbanos, N., & Theodorakis, Y. (2007). The moderating effects of self-talk content on self-talk functions. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 19, 240-251.
37. Higgins, E.T. (1999). When do self-discrepancies have specific relations to emotions? The second generation question of Tangney, Neidenthal, Covert, & Barlow (1998). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 1313-1317.
38. Higgins, J.P.T., & Green, S. (2009). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.0.2. Retrieved 4 December, 2010, from www.cochrane-handbook.org
39. Highlen, P.S., & Bennett, B.B. (1983). Elite divers and wrestlers: A comparison between open- and closed-skill athletes. Journal of Sport Psychology, 5, 390-409.
40. Howard, W.L., & Reardon, J.P. (1986). Changes in the self-concept and athletic performance of weight lifters through a cognitive-hypnotic approach: An empirical study. The American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 28, 248-257.
41. Johnson, J.J.M., Hrycaiko, D.W., Johnson, G.V., & Halas, J.M. (2004). Self-talk and female youth soccer performance. The Sport Psychologist, 18, 44-59.
42. Kendall, P.C. (1984). Cognitive processes and procedures. In C. Franks, G. Wilson, P. Kendall, & K. Browne, Annual review of behavior therapy (Vol. 10, pp. 123-163). New York: Guilford Press.
43. Kendall, P.C., & Treadwell, K.R.H. (2007). The role of self-statements as a mediator in treatment for youth with anxiety disorders. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 75, 380-389.
44. Kolovelonis, A., Goudas, M., & Dermitzaki, I. (2011). The effects of instructional and motivational self-talk on students' motor task performance in physical education. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 12, 153-158.
45. Landin, D. (1994). The role of verbal cues in skill learning. Quest, 46, 299-313.
46. Landin, D., & Hebert, E.P. (1999). The influence of self-talk on the performance of skilled female tennis players. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 11, 263-282.
47. Landin, D.K., & Macdonald, G. (1990). Improving the overheads of collegiate tennis players. Applied Research in Coaching and Athletics Annual, 5, 135-146.
48. Lazarus, R.S. (1991). Cognition and motivation in emotion. The American Psychologist, 46, 352-367.
49. Mahoney, M.J., & Avener, M. (1977). Psychology of the elite athlete: An exploratory study. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 1, 135-141.
50. Mallett, C.J., & Hanrahan, S.J. (1997). Race modeling: An effective cognitive strategy for the 100 m sprinter? The Sport Psychologist, 11, 72-85.
51. Martin, G.L., Vause, T., & Schwartzman, L. (2005). Experimental studies of psychological interventions with athletes in competitions: Why so few? Behavior Modification, 29, 616-641.
52. Masciana, R.C., Van Raalte, J.L., Brewer, B.W., Branton, M.G., & Coughlin, M.A. (2001). Effects of cognitive strategies on dart throwing performance. International Sports Journal, 5, 31-39.
53. Maynard, I.W., & Cotton, P.C.J. (1993). An investigation of two stress-management techniques in a field setting. The Sport Psychologist, 7, 375-387.
54. Maynard, I.W., Hemmings, B., Greenlees, I.A., Warwick-Evans, L., & Stanton, N. (1998). Stress management in sport: A comparison of unimodal and multimodal interventions. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 11, 225-246.
55. Maynard, I.W., Warwick-Evans, L., & Smith, M.J. (1995). The effects of a cognitive intervention strategy on competitive state anxiety and performance in semiprofessional soccer players. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 17, 428-446.
56. Meichenbaum, D., & Butler, L. (1979). Cognitive ethology: Assessing the streams of cognition and emotion. In K. Blankstein, P. Pliner, & J. Polivy (Eds.), Advances in the study of communication and affect: Assessment and modification of motional behavior (Vol. 6, pp. 306-321). New York: Guilford.
57. Papaioannou, A., Ballon, F., Theodorakis, Y., & Auwelle, Y.V. (2004). Combined effect of goal setting and self-talk in performance of a soccer-shooting task. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 98, 89-99.
58. Paul, G.L. (1967). Strategy of outcome research in psychotherapy. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 31, 109-118.
59. Peluso, E.A., Ross, M.J., Gfeller, J.D., & LaVoie, D.J. (2005). A comparison of mental strategies during athletic skills performance. Journal of Sports Science, and Medicine, 4, 543-549.
60. Perkos, S., Theodorakis, Y., & Chroni, S. (2002). Enhancing performance and skill acquisition in novice basketball players with instructional self-talk. The Sport Psychologist, 16, 368-383.
61. Rodgers, W., Hall, C., & Buckolz, E. (1991). The effect of an imagery training program on imagery ability, imagery use, and figure skating performance. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 3, 109-125.
62. Rushall, B.S., Hall, M., Roux, L., Sasseville, J., & Rushall, A.C. (1988). Effects of three types of thought content instructions on skiing performance. The Sport Psychologist, 2, 283-297.
63. Rushall, B.S., & Shewchuk, M.L. (1989). Effects of thought content instructions on swimming performance. Journal of Sports, Medicine, and Physical Fitness, 29, 326-334.
64. Russell, J.A. (1980). A circumplex model of affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 1161-1178.
65. Sallis, J.F., Prochaska, J.J., & Taylor, W.C. (2000). A review of correlates of physical activity of children and adolescents. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 32, 963-975.
66. Schwartz, R.M., & Garamoni, G.L. (1986). A structural model of positive and negative states of mind: Asymmetry in the internal dialogue. In P.C. Kendall (Ed.), Advances in cognitive-behavioral research and therapy (Vol. 5, pp. 1-62). New York: Academic Press.
67. Scopp, A.L. (2003). An effective tool in headache treatment. Headache & Pain: Diagnostic Challenges. Current Therapeutics, 14, 115-127.
68. Shadish, W.R., & Sweeney, R.B. (1991). Mediators and moderators in meta-analysis: There's a reason we don't let dodo birds tell us which psychotherapies should have prizes. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59, 883-893.
69. Stamou, E., Theodorakis, Y., Kokaridas, D., Perkos, S., & Kessanopoulou, M. (2007). The effect of self-talk on the penalty execution in goalball. British Journal of Visual Impairment, 25, 233-247.
70. Tenenbaum, G., Bar-Eli, M., Hoffman, J.R., Jablonovski, R., Sade, S., & Shitrit, D. (1995). The effect of cognitive and somatic psyching-up techniques on isokinetic leg strength performance. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 9, 3-7.
71. Theodorakis, Y., Beneca, A., Goudas, M., Antoniou, P., & Malliou, P. (1998). The effect of self-talk on injury rehabilitation. European Yearbook of Sport Psychology, 2, 124-135.
72. Theodorakis, Y., Chroni, S., Laparidis, K., Bebetsos, V., & Douma, I. (2001). Self-talk in a basketball-shooting task. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 92, 309-315.
73. Theodorakis, Y., Weinberg, R., Natsis, P., Douma, I., & Kazakas, P. (2000). The effects of motivational versus instructional self-talk on improving motor performance. The Sport Psychologist, 14, 253-272.
74. Thomas, J.R., Nelson, J.K., & Silverman, S.J. (2005). Research methods in physical activity (5th ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
75. Tod, D.A., Thatcher, R., McGuigan, M., & Thatcher, J. (2009). Effects of instructional and motivational self-talk on the vertical jump. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 23, 196-202.
76. Tynes, L.L., & McFatter, R.M. (1987). The efficacy of "psyching" strategies on a weightlifting task. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 11, 327-336.
77. Van Raalte, J.L., Brewer, B.W., Lewis, B.P., Linder, D.E., Wildman, G., & Kozimor, J. (1995). Cork! The effects of positive and negative self-talk on dart throwing performance. Journal of Sport Behavior, 18, 50-57.
78. Van Raalte, J.L., Brewer, B.W., Rivera, P.M., & Petitpas, A.J. (1994). The relationship between observable self-talk and competitive junior tennis players' match performances. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 16, 400-415.
79. Vargas-Tonsing, T.M., Myers, N.D., & Feltz, D.L. (2004). Coaches' and athletes' perceptions of efficacy-enhancing techniques. The Sport Psychologist, 18, 397-414.
80. Wampold, B.E. (2001). The great psychotherapy debate: Models, methods, and findings. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
81. Wang, L., Huddleston, S., & Peng, L. (2003). Psychological skill use by Chinese swimmers. International Sports Journal, 7, 48-55.
82. Weinberg, R.S., Smith, J., Jackson, A., & Gould, D. (1984). Effect of association, dissociation and positive self-talk strategies on endurance performance. Canadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences, 9, 25-32.
83. Wilkes, R.L., & Summers, J.J. (1984). Cognitions, mediating variables, and strength performance. Journal of Sport Psychology, 6, 351-359.
84. Wrisberg, C.A. (1993). Levels of performance skill. In R.N. Singer, M. Murphy, & L.K. Tennant (Eds.), Handbook of research on sport psychology (pp. 61-71). New York: Macmillan.
85. Wulf, G. (2007). Attention and motor skill learning. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
86. Wulf, G., & Prinz, W. (2001). Directing attention to movement effects enhances learning: A review. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 8, 648-660.
87. Ziegler, S.G. (1987). Effects of stimulus cueing on the acquisition of groundstrokes by beginning tennis players. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 20, 405-411.
88. Zinsser, N., Bunker, L., & Williams, J.M. (2010). Cognitive techniques for building confidence and enhancing performance. In J.M. Williams (Ed.), Applied sport psychology: Personal growth to peak performance (6th ed., pp. 305-335). Boston: McGraw Hill.