Is Adolescent Bullying an Evolutionary Adaptation?

Aggressive Behavior

Volumn 38, Issue 3, 2012, Pages 222-238

  Volk, Anthony A ^a   Camilleri, Joseph A ^b   Dane, Andrew V ^a   Marini, Zopito A ^a  

^a BROCK UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^b WESTFIELD STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Adaptation; Adolescence; Bullying; Evolution; Evolutionary psychology

Indexed keywords

ADAPTATION; ADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR; ADOLESCENT; ARTICLE; BEHAVIOR GENETICS; BULLYING; CHILD BEHAVIOR; EVOLUTION; FEMALE; GROUP PROCESS; HUMAN; MALE; REPRODUCTION; SEXUAL BEHAVIOR; SOCIAL DOMINANCE;

ADAPTATION, PHYSIOLOGICAL; ADAPTATION, PSYCHOLOGICAL; ADOLESCENT; ADOLESCENT BEHAVIOR; BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION; BULLYING; FEMALE; GENETICS, BEHAVIORAL; GROUP PROCESSES; HUMANS; MALE; REPRODUCTION; SEXUAL BEHAVIOR; SOCIAL DOMINANCE;

EID: 84860251951     PISSN: 0096140X     EISSN: 10982337     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/ab.21418     Document Type: Article

References (164)

1. Alcock J. 1988. Animal behavior, 4th edition. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer.
2. Alcock J. 2001. The triumph of sociobiology. Toronto: Oxford University Press.
3. Allal N, Sear R, Prentice AM, Mace R. 2002. An evolutionary model of stature, age at first birth, and reproductive success in Gambian women. Proc R Soc B, 271:465-470.
4. American Psychology Association, Task Force on Zero Tolerance. 2006. Are zero tolerance policies effective in schools? An evidentiary review and recommendations. Retrieved from.
5. Archer J. 1988. The behavioral biology of aggression. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
6. Archer J. 2009. Does sexual selection explain human sex differences in aggression? Behav Brain Sci 32:249-311.
7. Archer J, Benson D. 2008. Physical aggression as a function of perceived fighting ability and provocation: An experimental investigation. Aggr Behav 34:9-24.
8. Archer J, Southall N. 2009. Does cost-benefit analysis or self-control predict involvement in bullying behavior by male prisoners? Aggr Behav 35:31-40.
9. Archer J, Thanzami V. 2009. The relation between mate value, entitlement, physical aggression, size, and strength among a sample of young Indian men. Evol Hum Behav 30:315-321.
10. Bacchini D, Affuso G, Trotta T. 2008. Temperament, ADHD and peer relations among school children: The mediating role of school bullying. Aggr Behav 34:447-459.
11. Ball HA, Arsenault L, Taylor A, Maughan B, Caspi A, Moffitt TE. 2008. Genetic influences on victims, bullies, and bully-victims in childhood. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 49:104-112.
12. Bandura A. 1978. Social learning theory of aggression. J Commun 28:12-29.
13. Bell MB, Nichols HJ, Gilchrist JS, Cant MA, Hodges SJ. 2011. The cost of dominance: Suppressing subordinate reproduction affects the reproductive success of dominant female banded mongooses. Proc R Soc B. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1098/rspb.2011.1093.
14. Belsky J, Steinberg L, Draper P. 1991. Childhood experience, interpersonal development and reproductive strategy: An evolutionary theory of socialization. Child Dev 62:647-670.
15. Benenson JF. 2009. Dominating versus eliminating the competition: Sex differences in human intrasexual aggression. Behav Brain Sci32:268-269.
16. Berger KS. 2007. Update on bullying at school: Science forgotten? Dev Rev 27:90-126.
17. Birch LL. 1992. Children's preferences for high-fat foods. Nutr Rev 50:249-255.
18. Bjorklund DF, Pellegrini AD. 2000. Child development and evolutionary psychology. Child Dev 71:1687-1708.
19. Boehm C. 1993. Egalitarian behavior and reverse dominance hierarchy. Curr Anthropol 34:227-254.
20. Bollmer JM, Harris MJ, Milich R. 2006. Reactions to bullying and peer victimization: Narratives, physiological arousal, and personality. J Res Pers 40:803-828.
21. Book AS, Volk AA, Hosker A. in press. Adolescent bullying and personality: An adaptive approach. Pers Individ Dif.
22. Briggs JL. 1970. Never in Anger. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
23. Buss DM. 1988a. The evolution of human intrasexual competition: Tactics of mate attraction. J Pers Soc Psychol54:616-628.
24. Buss DM. 1988b. From vigilance to violence: Tactics of mate retention in American undergraduates. Ethol Sociobiol 9:291-317.
25. Camilleri JA, Quinsey VL. 2009. Testing the cuckoldry risk hypothesis of partner sexual coercion in community and forensic samples. Evol Psychol 7:164-178.
26. Cant MA, Hodges SJ, Bell MB, Gilchrist JS, Nichols HJ. 2010. Reproductive control via eviction (but not the threat of eviction) in banded mongooses. Proc R Soc B 277:2219-2226.
27. Capaldi DM, Kim HK, Shortt JW. 2004. Women's involvement in aggression in young adult romantic relationships: A developmental systems model. In: Putallaz M, Bierman KL (eds). Aggression, antisocial behavior, and violence among girls. New York: Guilford Press, pp 223-241.
28. Capaldi DM, Kim HK, Short JW. 2007. Observed initiation and reciprocity of physical aggression in young, at-risk couples. J Fam Violence 22:101-111.
29. Caravita SCS, Di Blasio P, Salmivalli C. 2009. Unique and interactive effects of empathy and social status on involvement in bullying. Soc Dev 18:140-163.
30. Caravita SCS, Di Blasio P, Salmivalli C. 2010. Early adolescents' participation in bullying: Is ToMinvolved? J Early Adolesc 30:138-170.
31. Carroll SB. 2005. Endless forms most beautiful. New York: Norton.
32. Chagnon NA. 1983. Yanomamö: The fierce people. Toronto: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.
33. Cillessen AHN, Mayeux L. 2007. Developmental changes in the association between aggression and status in the peer system. In: Hawley P, Little T, Rodkin P (eds). Aggression and adaptation: The bright side to bad behavior. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, pp 135-156.
34. Collins WA. 2003. More than myth: The developmental significance of romantic relationships during adolescence. J Res Adolesc 13:1-24.
35. Connolly J, Pepler D, Craig W, Taradash A. 2000. Dating experiences of bullies in early adolescence. Child Maltreat 5:299-310.
36. Craig WM, Pepler DJ. 1998. Observations of bullying and victimization in the school yard. Can J School Psychol 13:41-59.
37. Craig W, Pepler D, Connolly J, Henderson K. 2001. Developmental context of peer harassment in early adolescence: The role of puberty and the peer group. In: Juvonen J, Graham S (eds). Peer harassment in school: the plight of the vulnerable and victimized. New York: Guilford Press, pp 242-262.
38. Creel S, Creel NM. 2002. The african wild dog. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
39. Crick NR, Dodge KA. 1994. A review and reformulation of social-information processing mechanisms in children's social adjustment. Psychol Bull 115:74-101.
40. Crick NR, Dodge KA. 1999. 'Superiority' is in the eye of the beholder: A comment on Sutton, Smith, and Swettenham. Soc Dev 8:128-131.
41. Cunningham H. 2005. Children and childhood in western society since 1500, 2nd edition. Toronto, Canada: Pearson-Longman.
42. Cunningham NJ, Taylor M, Whitten ME, Hardesty PH, Eder K, DeLaney N. 2010. The relationship between self-perception of physical attractiveness and sexual bullying in early adolescence. Aggr Behav36:271-281.
43. Daly M, Wilson M. 1988. Homicide. New Brunswick, NJ: Aldine Transaction.
44. Dane A, Marini Z, Book A, Volk A. 2011. Preventing bullying by tailoring parenting to children's temperament: The case of children with Callous- Unempathic characteristics. In: Pepler D, Cummings J, Craig W (eds). Creating a world without bullying. PREVNet Series, Vol. 3. Ottawa: National Printers, p 117-135.
45. Dawkins R. 1989. The selfish gene. New York: Oxford University Press.
46. de Bruyn EH, Cillessen AH, Wissinck IB. 2010. Associations of peer acceptance and perceived popularity with bullying and victimization in early adolescence. J Early Adolesc 30:543-566.
47. Del Giudice M, Belsky J. 2010. Sex differences in attachment emerge in middle childhood: An evolutionary hypothesis. Child Dev Perspect 4:97-105.
48. Dijkstra JK, Lindenberg S, Veenstra R. 2007. Same-gender and cross-gender peer acceptance and peer rejection and their relation to bullying and helping among preadolescents: Comparing predictions from gender-homophily and goal-framing approaches. Develop Psychol 43:1377-1389.
49. Dijkstra JK, Lindenberg S, Veenstra R. 2008. Beyond the class norm: Bullying behavior of popular adolescents and its relation to peer acceptance and rejection. J Abnorm Child Psychol 36:1289-1299.
50. DiLalla EF. 2002. Behavior genetics of aggression in children: Review and future directions. Dev Rev 22:593-622.
51. Ein-Dor T, Mikulincer M, Doron G, Shaver PR. 2010. The attachment paradox: How can so many of us (the insecure ones) have no adaptive advantages? Perspect Psychol Sci 5:123-141.
52. Ellis BJ. 2004. Timing of pubertal maturation in girls: An integrated life history approach. Psychol Bull 130:920-958.
53. Ellis BJ, Bjorklund DF (eds). 2005. Origins of the social mind: Evolutionary psychology and child development. New York: Guilford Press.
54. Estell DB, Farmer TW, Cairns BD. 2007. Bullies and victims in rural African American youth: Behavioral characteristics and social network placement. Aggress Behav 33:145-159.
55. Eysenck HJ. 2006. The biological basis of personality. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.
56. Fekkes M, Pijpers FI, Verloove-Vanhoricke SP. 2004. Bullying behavior and associations with psychosomatic complaints and depression in victims. J Pediatr 144:17-22.
57. Flanagan R. 2007. Lucifer goes to law school: Towards explaining and minimizing law student peer-to-peer harassment and intimidation. Washburn Law J 47:453-469.
58. Flinn MV. 2006. Evolution and ontogeny of stress response to social challenge in the human child. Dev Rev 26:138-174.
59. Gallup AC, White DD, Gallup GG. 2007. Handgrip strength predicts sexual behavior, body morphology, and aggression in male college students. Evol Hum Behav28:423-429.
60. Geary DC. 2010. Male, female: The evolution of sex differences, 2nd edition. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
61. Geary DC, Bjorklund DF. 2000. Evolutionary developmental psychology. Child Dev 71:57-65.
62. Golden M. 1990. Children and childhood in classical Athens. Baltimore, MA: The John Hopkins University Press.
63. Goldsmith HH, Lemery KS, Buss KA, Campos JJ. 1999. Genetic analyses of focal aspects of infant temperament. Dev Psychol35:972-985.
64. Goodall J. 1986. The chimpanzees of Gombe. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
65. Gould SJ, Vrba ES. 1982. Exaptation-a missing term in the science of form. Paleobiology 8:4-15.
66. Hawker DS, Boulton MJ. 2000. Twenty years research on peer victimization and psychosocial maladjustment: A meta-analytical view of cross-sectional studies. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 41:441-455.
67. Hawley PH. 1999. The ontogenesis of social dominance: A strategy-based evolutionary perspective. Dev Rev 19:97-132.
68. Hawley PH. 2007. Social dominance in childhood and adolescence: Why social competence and aggression may go hand in hand. In: Hawley PH, Little TD, Rodkin PC (eds). Aggression and adaptation: The bright side to bad behavior. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers, pp 1-29.
69. Hawley PH, Stump KN, Ratliff JM. 2010. Sidestepping the jingle fallacy: Bullying, aggression, and the importance of knowing the difference. In: Espelage D, Swearer S (eds). Bullying in North American schools, 2nd edition. New York: Rutledge Press, pp 101-115.
70. Haynie DL, Nansel T, Eitel P, Crump AD, Saylor K, Yu K, et al. 2001. Bullies, victims, and bully/victims: Distinct groups of at-risk youth. J Early Adolesc 21:29-49.
71. Heider K. 1991. Grand Valley Dani, 2nd edition. Toronto: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.
72. Hernderson ND. 1982. Human behavior genetics. Ann Rev Psychol 33:403-440.
73. Hill K, Hurtado AM. 1996. Ache Life History: The ecology and demography of a foraging people. New Brunswick, NJ: Aldine de Gruyter.
74. Hrdy SB. 1999. Mother nature. New York: Pantheon.
75. Hrdy SB. 2009. Mothers and others. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
76. Hsiung PC. 2005. A tender voyage: Children and childhood in late imperial China. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
77. Hubbard JA, McAuliffe, MD, Morrow MT, Romano LJ. 2010. Reactive and proactive aggression in childhood and adolescence: Precursors, outcomes, processes, experiences, and measurement. J Pers 78:95-118.
78. Ingold T. 2004. On the social relations of the hunter-gatherer band. In: Lee RB, Daly R (eds). Hunters and gatherers. New York: Cambridge University Press, pp 309-330.
79. Ireland JL. 2005. Psychological health and bullying behavior among adolescent prisoners: A study of young and juvenile offenders. J Adolesc 36:236-243.
80. Irons W. 1998. Adaptively relevant environments versus the environment of evolutionary adaptedness. Evol Anthropol 6:194-204.
81. Juvonen J, Graham S, Schuster MA. 2003. Bullying among young adolescents: the strong, the weak, and the troubled. Pediatrics 112:1231-1237.
82. Kamei N. 2005. Play among Baka children in Cameroon. In: Hewlett BS, Lamb ME (eds). Hunter-gatherer childhoods. New Brunswick, NJ: Aldine Transaction, pp 343-359.
83. Kazdin AE. 2010. Problem-solving skills training and parent management training for opposition defiant disorder and conduct disorder. In: Kazdin AE, Weisz JR (eds). Evidence-based psychotherapies for children and adolescents, 2nd edition. New York: Guilford, pp 211-226.
84. Keeley LH. 1996. War before civilization. New York: Oxford University Press.
85. Kolbert JB, Crothers L. 2003. Bullying and evolutionary psychology: The dominance hierarchy among students and implications for school personnel. J Sch Violence 2:73-91.
86. Konner M. 2010. The evolution of childhood: Relationships, emotion, mind. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
87. Lalumière ML, Harris GT, Quinsey VL, Rice ME. 2005. The causes of rape: Understanding individual differences in male propensity for sexual aggression. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
88. Land D. 2003. Teasing apart secondary students' conceptualizations of peer teasing, bullying and sexual harassment. School Psychol Int 24:147-165.
89. Laslett R. 1980. Bullies: a children's court in a day school for maladjusted children. J Spec Educ 4:391-397.
90. Lee RB. 1979. The !Kung San. New York: Cambridge University Press.
91. Lee RB, Daly R. 1999. The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of hunters and gatherers. New York: Cambridge University Press.
92. Leenaars LS, Dane AV, Marini ZA. 2008. Evolutionary perspective on indirect victimization in adolescence: The role of attractiveness, dating and sexual behavior. Aggr Behav 34:404-415.
93. Lochman JE, Boxmeyer CL, Powell NP, Barry TD, Pardini DA. 2010. Anger control training for aggressive youths. In: Kazdin AE, Weisz JR (eds). Evidence-based psychotherapies for children and adolescents, 2nd edition. New York: Guilford, pp 227-242.
94. Lorenz K. 1966. On aggression. Toronto: Bantam.
95. Maccoby E. 2004. Aggression in the context of gender development. In: Putallaz M, Bierman KL (eds). Aggression, antisocial behavior, and violence among girls (3-22). New York: Guilford Press.
96. Marini ZA, Dane AV, Bosacki SL, YLC-CURA. 2006. Direct and indirect bully-victims: Differential psychosocial risk factors associated with adolescents involved in bullying and victimization. Aggr Behav 32:551-569.
97. Marini ZA, Dane A, Kennedy R. 2010. Multiple pathways to bullying: Tailoring educational practices to variations in students' temperament and brain function. In: Ferrari M, Vuletic L(eds). The developmental relations between mind, brain, and education: Essays in honor of Robbie Case. New York: Springer, pp 257-291.
98. Marini ZA, Dane A, Volk A. 2008. What's a bully-victim? Education.Com-special issue on bullying at school and online (Guest Editors, Hymel S, Swearer S). URL:.
99. Marini ZA, Volk AA, Dane AV. 2009. Parent-focused interventions for the prevention of bullying: Accommodating children with difficulties regulating emotions. Pepler D, Craig W (eds). Rise up for respectful relationships. Ottawa: National Printers, pp 41-57.
100. Marlowe F. 2010. The Hadza: Hunter-gatherers of Tanzania. Los Angeles: University of California Press.
101. Masure RH, Allee WC. 1934. The social order in flocks of the common chicken and the pigeon. Auk 51:306-327.
102. Mayeux L, Sandstrom MJ, Cillesen AHN. 2008. Is being popular a risky proposition? J Res Adolesc 18:49-74.
103. McMaster LE, Connolly J, Pepler D, Craig WM. 2002. Peer to peer sexual harassment in early adolescence: A developmental perspective. Develop Psychopathol 14:91-105.
104. Mech DL. 1970. The wolf: The ecology and behavior of an endangered species. New York: Natural History Press.
105. Merrell KW, Gueldner BA, Ross SW, Isava DM. 2008. How effective are school bullying intervention programs? A meta-analysis of intervention research. School Psychol 23:26-42.
106. Møller AP, Alatalo RV. 1999. Good-genes effects in sexual selection. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 266:85-91.
107. Nardi BA. 1984. At the height of her powers: Margaret Mead's Samoa. Femin Stud 10:323-337.
108. Newman ML, Holden GW, Delville Y. 2005. Isolation and the stress of being bullied. J Adolesc 28:343-357.
109. Olthof T, Goossens FA. 2008.Bullying and the need to belong: Early adolescents' bullying-related behavior and the acceptance they desire and receive from particular classmates. Soc Dev 17:24-46.
110. Olweus D. 1993. Bullying at school: What we know and what we can do. New York: Wiley-Blackwell.
111. Olweus D. 1994. Bullying at school: Basic facts and effects of a school based intervention program. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 35:1175-1190.
112. Orme N. 2001. Medieval Children. New Haven: Yale University Press.
113. Owens L, Shute R, Slee P. 2000. "I'm in and you're out..." Explanations for teenage girls' indirect aggression. Psychol Evol Gender 2:19-46.
114. Pellegrini AD. 2001. A longitudinal study of heterosexual relationships, aggression, and sexual harassment during the transition from primary school through middle school. J Appl Dev Psychol 22:119-133.
115. Pellegrini AD, Bartini M. 2000. A longitudinal study of bullying, victimization and peer acceptance during the transition from primary school to middle school. Am Educ Res J 37:699-725.
116. Pellegrini AD, Bartini M, Brooks F. 1999. School bullies, victims, and aggressive victims: Factors relating to group affiliation and victimization in early adolescence. J Educ Psychol 91:216-224.
117. Pellegrini AD, Long JD. 2003. A sexual selection theory longitudinal analysis of sexual segregation and integration in early adolescence. J Exp Child Psychol 85:257-278.
118. Pepler D, Craig WM, Connolly JA, Yuile A, McMaster L, Jiang D. 2006. A developmental perspective on bullying. Aggr Behav 32:376-384.
119. Raskauskas J, Stoltz AD. 2007. Involvement in traditional and electronic bullying among adolescents. Dev Psychol 43:564-575.
120. Rawson B. 2003. Children and childhood in Roman Italy. Toronto: Oxford University Press.
121. Rigby K. 2003. Consequences of bullying in schools. Can J Psychiatry 48:583-590.
122. Rigby K. 2010. Bullying Intervention in Schools. Camberwell, Australia: Acer.
123. Rivers I, Smith PK. 1994. Types of bullying behavior and their correlates. Aggress Behav 20:359-368.
124. Rodkin PC, Berger C. 2008. Who bullies whom? Social status asymmetries by victim ender. Int J Behav Dev 32:473-485.
125. Salmivalli C, Nieminen E. 2002. Proactive and reactive aggression among school bullies, victims, and bully-victims. Aggr Behav 28:30-44.
126. Sapolsky RM. 2004. Social status and health in humans and other animals. Ann Rev Anthropol 33:3939-418.
127. Schwartz D, Proctor LJ, Chien DH. 2001. The aggressive victim of bullying: Emotional and behavioral dysregulation as a pathway to victimization by peers. Peer harassment in school: The plight of the vulnerable and victimized. In: Jaana J, Sandra G (eds). Peer harassment in school: The plight of the vulnerable and victimized. New York: Guilford Press, pp 147-174.
128. Scott J. 1991. Painted wolves. Toronto: Penguin Books.
129. Shakoor S, Jaffee SR, Caspi A, Moffitt TE, Arsenault L. 2011. Children's cognitive abilities and involvement in bullying behaviors: A direct or indirect effect? Talk given at the Society for Research in Child Development, Montreal, Canada.
130. Sherif M, Sherif CW. 1970. Motivation and intergroup aggression: A persistent problem in levels of analysis. In: Aronson LR et al. (eds), Development and evolution of behavior. San Francisco, CA: Freeman, pp 663-579.
131. Shute R, Owens L, Slee P. 2008. Everyday victimization of adolescent girls by boys: Sexual harassment, bullying or aggression? Sex Roles 58:477-489.
132. Smith HJ. 2005. Parenting for primates. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
133. Smith PK. 1999. The nature of school bullying: A cross-national perspective. New York: Routledge.
134. Smokowski PR, Kopasz KH. 2005. Bullying in school: An overview of types, effects, family characteristics, and intervention strategies. Children & Schools 27:101-110.
135. Stewart KJ. 1987. Spotted hyenas: The importance of being dominant. Trends Ecol Evol 2:88-89.
136. Sutton J, Smith PK, Swettenham J. 1999. Bullying and theory of mind: A critique of the social skills deficit view of anti-social behavior. Soc Dev 8:117-127.
137. Tani F, Greenman PS, Schneider BH, Fregoso M. 2003. Bullying and the Big Five: A study of childhood personality and participant roles in bullying incidents. School Psychol Int 24:131-146.
138. Thomas EM. 1989. The harmless people, 2nd Edition. Toronto: Random House.
139. Thompson S. 2010. The intimate ape. New York: Citadel Press.
140. Timmerman G. 2003. Sexual harassment of adolescents perpetrated by teachers and by peers: An exploration of the dynamics of power, culture, and gender in secondary schools. Sex Roles 48:231-244.
141. Trigger BG. 1969. The huron. Toronto: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.
142. Trivers RL. 1972. Parental investment and sexual selection. In: Campbell B (ed). Sexual selection and the descent of man. London: Heinemann, pp 136-179.
143. Ttofi MM, Farrington DP. 2011. Effectiveness of school-based programs to reduce bullying: a systematic and meta-analytic approach. J Exp Criminol 7:27-56.
144. Turnbull CM. 1972. The mountain people. New York: Touchstone.
145. Underwood G. 1954. Categories of adaptation. Evolution 8:356-377.
146. Vaillancourt T. 2005. Indirect aggression among humans: Social construct or evolutionary adaptation? In: Tremblay RE, Hartup WW, Archer J (eds). Developmental origins of aggression. New York: Guilford Press, pp 158-177.
147. Vaillancourt T, Hymel, S, McDougall P. 2003. Bullying is power: Implications for school-based intervention strategies. J Appl School Psychol 19:157-176.
148. van Honk J, Schutter DJ, Hermans EJ, Putman P. 2004. Testosterone, cortisol, dominance, and submission: Biologically prepared motivation, no psychological mechanisms involved. Behav Brain Sci 27:160-162.
149. van Lewick H, Goodall J. 1978. Innocent killers. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
150. Veenstra R, Lindenberg S, Munniksma A, Dijkstra JK. 2010. The complex relation between bullying, victimization, acceptance, and rejection: Giving special attention to status, affection, and sex differences. Child Dev 81:480-486.
151. Veenstra R, Lindenberg S, Oldehinkel AJ, De Winter AF, Verhulst FC, Ormel J. 2005. Bullying and victimization in elementary schools: A comparison of bullies, victims, bully/victims, and uninvolved preadolescents. Dev Psychol 41:672-682.
152. Volk AA, Atkinson J. 2008. Is child death the crucible of human evolution? J Soc Cultural Evol Psychol 2:247-260.
153. Volk A, Camilleri J, Dane A, Marini Z. (in press). If, when, and why bullying is adaptive. In: Shackelford T, Shackelford V (eds). Oxford handbook of evolutionary perspectives on violence, homicide, and war. New York: Oxford University Press.
154. Volk A, Craig W, Boyce W, King M. 2006. Adolescent risk correlates of bullying and different types of victimization. Int J of Adolesc Med Health 18:375-386.
155. Wade A, Beran T. 2011. Cyberbullying: The new era of bullying. Can J School Psychol 26:44-61.
156. Walden LM, Beran TN. 2010. Attachment quality and bullying behavior in school-aged youth. Can J School Psychol 25:5-18.
157. Walker WD. 1997. Patterns in sexual offending. Unpublished PhD thesis, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada.
158. Wellman HM. 1992. The child's theory of mind. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
159. Williams GC. 1966. Adaptation and Natural Selection. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
160. Wrangham RW. 1980. An ecological model of female-bonded primates. Behavior 75:262-300.
161. Wolke D, Woods S, Bloomfield L, Karstadt L. 2001. Bullying involvement in primary school and common health problems. Arch Dis Child 85:197-201.
162. Zerjal T, Xue Y, Bertorelle G, Wells RS, Bao W, Zhu S, et al. 2003. The genetic legacy of the Mongols. Am J Hum Genet 72:717-721.
163. Zimbardo P. 2008. The Lucifer effect: Understanding how good people turn evil. New York: Random House.
164. Zimmer-Gembeck MJ, Geiger TC, Crick NR. 2005. Relational and physical aggression, prosocial behavior, and peer relations: Gender moderation and bidirectional associations. J Early Adolesc 25:421-452.