Freedom of contract in an augmented reality: The case of consumer contracts

UCLA Law Review

Volumn 59, Issue 3, 2012, Pages 676-745

  Peppet, Scott R ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 84859353719     PISSN: 00415650     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (279)

1. George A. Akerlof, The Market for "Lemons": Quality Uncertainty and the Market Mechanism, 84 Q. J. ECON. 488, 489-90 (1970).
2. CARFAX LEMON CHECK, http://ww.lemoncheck.com (last visited Jan. 15, 2012).
3. see Andrew Charlesworth, The Ascent of Smartphone, ENGINEERING & TECH., Feb. 2009, at 32, 32-33.
4. See AARON SMITH, PEW INTERNET & AM. LIFE PROJECT, 35% OF AMERICAN ADULTS OWN A SMARTPHONE (2011), available at http://www.pewmtemet.org/~/meaUa/ Files/Reports/2011/PIP-Smartphones.pdf (providing statistics);
5. see also Mike Isaac, Smartphones Dominate U. S. Mobile Purchases, WIRED, June 30, 2011, http://www.wired.com/gadgetlab/2011/06/android-iphone-growth (providing statistics).
6. See Sean Ludwig, Annual Smartphone Sales Will Top 1 Billion by 2016, Says IMS, VENTUREBEAT (July 27, 2011), http://venturebeat.com/2011/07/27/annual- smartphone-sales-will-top-l-billionby-2016-says-ims (reporting increased smartphone sales year after year, and projecting sales of one billion devices by 2016).
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8. See Horace Dediu, Phone Tipping Point Countdown Reset, ASYMCO (May 7, 2011), http://www.asymco.com/2011/05/07/phone-tipping-point-countdown-reset (reporting that smartphone adoption is increasing by 1.3 percent per month).
9. See generally Thomas P. Caudell & David W. Mizell, Augmented Reality: An Application of Heads Up Display Technology to Manual Manufacturing Processes, PROC. OF THE IEEE TWENTY-FIFTH HAWAII INTL CONF. ON SYS. SCI. 659 (1992). Augmented reality is often defined as augmenting the physical senses-particularly visual-with digital information.
10. See, e.g., Ronald T. Azuma, A Survey of Augmented Reality, PRESENCE: TELEOPERATORS & VIRTUAL ENVIRONMENTS 355 (1997) ("AR allows the user to see the real world, with virtual objects superimposed upon or composited with the real world.");
11. Paul Milgram & Fumio Kishino, A Taxonomy of Mixed Reality Visual Displays, E77-D IEICE TRANSACTIONS ON INFO. & SYS. 1321, 1322 (1994) (defining augmented reality as "any case in which an otherwise real environment is 'augmented' by means of virtual (computer graphic) objects"). I use the term somewhat more broadly. My interest is in the convergence of digital and physical space generally, not merely in the real-time augmentation of digital video. Augmented reality is the most useful term to describe all of the various ways in which technology is beginning to bring the digital and the physical worlds together. Other candidates include ubiquitous computing, pervasive computing, physical computing, tangible media, ambient informatics, "wearware", and "everyware."
12. See generally WOODROW BARFIELD & THOMAS CAUDELL, FUNDAMENTALS OF WEARABLE COMPUTERS AND AUGMENTED REALITY, at xii (2001) (reviewing various terminology);
13. ADAM GREENFIELD, EVERYWARE: THE DAWNING AGE OF UBIQUITOUS COMPUTING 1 (2006) (same).
14. See Google Goggles, GOOGLE MOBILE, http://www.google.com/mobile/goggles/ #text (last visited July 7, 2011).
15. See AMAZON, http://www.amazon. com (last visited July 5, 2011);
16. CONSUMER REPORTS, http://www.consumerreports.org (last visited July 5, 2011). Various others offer similar services.
17. See, e.g., SCANLIFE, http://www.scanlife.com (last visited July 1, 2011) (providing barcode and augmented reality code scanning applications for various smartphone platforms).
18. See BETTER BUSINESS BUREAU, http://www.bbb.org (last visited July 5, 2011).
19. See FACEBOOK, http://www.facebook.com (last visited July 1, 2011).
20. See Alessandro Acquisti, Ralph Gross & Fred Srutzman, Privacy in the Age of Augmented Reality 5 (working draft) (on file with author) ("To illustrate the possibility of real-time identification, we developed a smart phone demo application that captures the image of a person and then overlays on the screen her predicted name and SSN.");
21. see also Julia Angwin, Face-ID Tools Pose New Risk, WALL ST. J., Aug. 1, 2011, http://onune.wsj.com/article/SBl00014240531 H903341404576480371062384798. html (describing Acquisti et al.'s study).
22. See Emily Steel & Julia Angwin, Device Raises Fear of Facial Profiling, WALL ST. J., July 13, 2011, http://onlme.wsj.com/article/ SB100014240527023 03678704576440253307985070.html ("Dozens of law-enforcement agencies from Massachusetts to Arizona are preparing to outfit their forces with controversial hand-held facial-recognition devices as soon as September⋯"). In addition to facial recognition, the hardware add-on for the iPhone can scan irises and take fingerprints.
23. For a useful overview, see Note, In the Face of Danger: Facial Recognition and the Limits of Privacy Law, 120 HARV. L. REV. 1870 (2007).
24. 350 F.2d 445 (D. C. Cir. 1965).
25. see also Arthur Leff, Unconscionability and the Code-The Emperor's New Clause, 115 U. PA. L. REV. 485, 552-54 (1967) (drawing the distinction between procedural and substantive unconscionability).
26. Walker-Thomas, 350 F2d at 449.
27. See William Raspberry, The Day the City's Fury Was Unleashed: Lessons of the Riots, WASH. POST, Apr. 3, 1998, at A1 (suggesting that the Walker-Thomas Furniture Co. was targeted by looters during the 1968 riots as revenge for its well-known business practices).
28. See PISSED CONSUMER, http://www.pissedconsurner.com (last visited July 5, 2011). A search of Pissed Consumer reveals hundreds of reviews regarding credit-related repossessions, like those at issue in Walker-Thomas.
29. See, e.g., AmeriCredit, PISSED CONSUMER, http://americredit. pissedconsurner.com (last visited July 5, 2011) (providing over 150 complaints about the repossession tactics of AmeriCredit);
30. See Rachel King, Foursquare Takes on Yelp With Public User Review Pages, ZDNET (Aug. 1, 2011, 10:32 AM), http://www.zdnet.com/blog/btl/forusquare-takes- onyelp-with-public-user-review-pages/53677.
31. For those without a QR code reader, the video can be seen by visiting Scott Peppet, Augmented Reality & Freedom of Contract, available at http://lawweb.colorado.edu/events/mediaDetails.jsp?id=2807 (last visited Dec. 27, 2011).
32. See Melvin Aron Eisenberg, The Limits of Cognition and the Limits of Contract, 47 STAN. L. REV. 211, 240 (1995) ("The problems raised by the use of form contracts have been a major preoccupation of contract law scholars for the past forty years."). Standard form contracts are an obsession for contract scholars.
33. See, e.g., Randy E. Barnett, Consenting to Form Contracts, 71 FORDHAM L. REV. 627 (2002);
34. Russell Korobkin, Bounded Rationality, Standard Form Contracts, and Unconscionability, 70 U. CHI. L. REV. 1203 (2003);
35. Todd D. Rakoff, Contracts of Adhesion: An Essay in Reconstruction, 96 HARV. L. REV. 1173 (1983);
36. W. David Slawson, Standard Form Contracts and Democratic Control of Lawmaking Power, 84 HARV. L. REV. 529 (1971);
37. Symposium, "Boilerplate": Foundations on Market Contracts, 104 MICH. L. REV. 821 (2006).
38. See, e.g., DANIEL J. SOLOVE, THE FUTURE OF REPUTATION: GOSSIP, RUMOR, AND PRIVACY ON THE INTERNET (2007);
39. Julie E. Cohen, Examined Lives: Informational Privacy and the Subject as Object, 52 STAN. L. REV. 1373 (2000);
40. A. Michael Froomkin, The Death of Privacy?, 52 STAN. L. REV. 1461 (2000);
41. Paul M. Schwartz & William M. Treanor, The New Privacy, 101 MICH. L. REV. 2163, 2177 (2003).
42. See, e.g, OSCAR H. GANDY, JR., THE PANOPTIC SORT: A POLITICAL ECONOMY OF PERSONAL INFORMATION (1993);
43. See, e.g., Jerry Kang & Dana Cuff, Pervasive Computing: Embedding the Public Sphere, 62 WASH. & LEE L. REV. 93 (2005);
44. Lior Jacob Strahilevitz, "How's My Driving?" For Everyone (and Everything?), 81 N. Y. U. L. REV. 1699 (2006) [hereinafter Strahilevitz, "How's My Driving"];
45. Lior Jacob Strahilevitz, Reputation Nation: Law in an Era of Ubiquitous Personal Information, 102 NW. U. L. REV. 1667 (2008) [hereinafter Strahilevitz, Reputation Nation].
46. See, e.g., Clayton P. Gillette, Reputation and Intermediaries in Electronic Commerce, 62 LA. L. REV. 1165 (2002);
47. Robert A. Hillman & Jeffrey J. Rachlinski, Standard-Form Contracting in the Electronic Age, 77 N. Y. U. L. REV. 429, 478 (2002) (discussing online or e-commerce standard form contracting);
48. Robert J. Mann & Travis Siebeneicher, Just One Click The Reality of Internet Retail Contracting, 108 COLUM. L. REV. 984 (2008);
49. Peter P. Swire, Trust-wrap: The Importance of Legal Rules to Electronic Commerce and Internet Privacy, 54 HASTINGS L. J. 847 (2003);
50. Hal R. Varian, Computer Mediated Transactions, 100 AM. ECON. REV. 1 (2010) (exploring the ways in which computer technology is changing transactions and contracting);
51. Avery Wiener Katz, Is Electronic Contracting Different? Contract Law in the Information Age 5 (2004) (unpublished manuscript) (on file with author).
52. See Geoffrey A. Fowler, E-Commerce Growth Slows, but Still Out-Paces Retail, DIGITS (Mar. 8, 2010, 6:01 AM), http://blogs.wsj.com/digits/2010/03/08/ e-commerce-growth-slows-butstill-out-paces-retail. Estimates assume that e-commerce might increase to 8 percent by 2014 and to 20 percent at some point in the future-still a notable minority of transactions.
53. See, e.g., RICHARD A. POSNER, ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF LAW 3 (8th ed. 2011);
54. Benjamin E. Hermalin, Avery W. Katz & Richard Craswell, Contract Law § 2. 2.1, in THE HANDBOOK OF LAW & ECONOMICS (A. Mitchell Polinsky & Steven Shavell eds., 2007) (discussing core principles of the welfare economics of contract).
55. See ROBERT COOTER & THOMAS ULEN, LAW & ECONOMICS 231 (5th ed. 2008) (The farther the facts depart from the ideal of perfect rationality and zero transaction costs, the stronger the case for judges' regulating the terms of the contract by law.");
56. see Oliver E. Williamson, Transaction-Cost Economics: The Governance of Contractual Relations, 22 J. L. & ECON. 233, 233 (1979) (describing economics as "preoccupied with the origins, incidence, and ramifications of transaction costs");
57. see also Oliver Williamson, Transaction Cost Economics, in THE HANDBOOK OF NEW INSTITUTIONAL ECONOMICS 41 (Claude Menard & Mary M. Shirley eds., 2005) (providing an overview of the field).
58. See, e.g., Roger Klein, Richard Spady & Andrew Weiss, Factors Affecting the Output and Quit Propensities of Production Workers, 58 REV. ECON. STUD. 929 (1991) (exploring the example of employers sorting job applicants based on high school graduation as a proxy for perseverance).
59. Signaling "refers to actions taken by an informed party for the sole purpose of credibly revealing his private information. " N. GREGORY MANKIW, PRINCIPLES OF ECONOMICS 487 (5th ed. 2009). Put differendy, "[information asymmetries] may give rise to signaling, which is the attempt by the informed side of the market to communicate information that the other side would find valuable."
60. WILLIAM A. McEACHERN, ECONOMICS: A CONTEMPORARY INTRODUCTION 619 (5th ed. 2000). Economists focus on signals that are difficult to fake and thus are self-verifying.
61. See, e.g., DIANE COYLE, THE SOULFUL SCIENCE: WHAT ECONOMISTS REALLY DO AND WHY IT MATTERS 163 (rev. ed. 2010) (describing how Indian villagers borrow huge sums to pay for expensive weddings to signal their caste and social status);
62. Paul Herbig & John Milewicz, Market Signaling Behavior in the Service Industry, 1 ACAD. MARKETING STUD. J. 35, 39 (1997) (explaining that service businesses like banks and law firms spend vast sums on elaborate office buildings to signal their quality and solvency to potential clients).
63. Modem signaling theory began with Michael Spence, Job Market Signaling, 87 Q. J. ECON. 355 (1973);
64. see also Michael Spence, Competition in Salaries, Credentials, and Signaling Prerequisites for Jobs, 90 Q. J. ECON. 51 (1976) (discussing his classic example of signaling through educational achievement).
65. see John G. Riley, Silver Signals: Twenty-Five Years of Screening and Signaling, 39 J. ECON. LITERATURE 432 (2001);
66. see also Michael Spence, Informational Aspects of Market Structure: An Introduction, 90 Q. J. ECON. 591, 592 (1976) ("[Signaling and sorting] are opposite sides of the same coin. ").
67. See SEARCH REVIEWS, http://vww.searchreviews.com (last visited July 5, 2011) (providing a mobile barcode-based application that searches a massive aggregated data set of consumer reviews).
68. On debiasing generally, see Christine Jolls & Cass R. Sunstein, Debiasing Through Law, 35 J. LEGAL STUD. 199, 210 (2006).
69. See Jeff Braun, American Football: That Magic Yellow Line, ILLUMIN, Dec. 27, 2011, http://illumin. usc.edu/195/american-football-that-magic-yellow-line (explaining how the yellow line is created);
70. SPORTVISION, http://www.sportvision. com/about.html (last visited July 7, 2011) (providing examples of AR from various sports).
71. THE TERMINATOR (Orion Pictures 1984);
72. TERMINATOR TWO: JUDGMENT DAY (TnStar Pictures 1991);
73. TERMINATOR THREE: RISE OF THE MACHINES (Warner Bros. 2003).
74. MINORITY REPORT (Twentieth Century Fox 2002).
75. See Ivan E. Sutherland, A Head-Mounted Three-Dimensional Display, PROC. FALL JOINT COMP. CONF. 757 (1968).
76. See STEPHEN CAWOOD & MARK FIALA, AUGMENTED REALITY: A PRACTICAL GUIDE 2 (2007) (explaining the origins of the "Sword of Damocles" nickname).
77. See Jack M. Loomis et al., Personal Guidance System for the Visually Impaired Using GPS, GIS, and VR Technologies, PROC. VIRTUAL REALITY & PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES CONF. (1993).
78. The Tinmith backpacks were early pioneers, as was the Touring Machine. See Steve Feiner et al., A Touring Machine: Prototyping 3D Mobile Augmented Reality Systems for Exploring the Urban Environment, PROC. OF THE FIRST IEEE INTL SYMP. ON WEARABLE COMPUTERS 74 (1997);
79. Bruce H. Thomas et al., A Wearable Computer System With Augmented Reality to Support Terrestrial Navigation, PROC. OF THE SECOND IEEE INTL SYMP. ON WEARABLE COMPUTERS 168 (1998).
80. See, e.g., Tobia Hollerer et al., Situated Documentaries: Embedding Multimedia Presentations in the Real World, PROC. OF THE THIRD IEEE INT'L SYMP. ON WEARABLE COMPUTERS 79 (1999) (demonstrating an augmented reality system contained in a backpack).
81. See Simon Julier et al., BARS: Battlefield Augmented Reality System, NATO INFO. SYS. TECHNIQUES SYMP. ON "NEW INFO. PROCESSING TECH. FOR MILITARY SYSTEMS" (2000).
82. See Bruce Thomas et al., ARQuake: An Outdoor/Indoor Augmented Reality First Person Application, PROC OF THE FOURTH INT'L SYMP. ON WEARABLE COMPUTERS 139 (2000) (presenting a system extending the personal computer game Quake to the physical world for users equipped with a mobile AR backpack);
83. see also Adrian David Cheok et al., Human Pacmam A Sensing-Based Mobile Entertainment System With Ubiquitous Computing and Tangible Interaction, PROC. OF THE SECOND WORKSHOP ON NETWORK & SYSTEM SUPPORT FOR GAMES 106 (2003) (presenting interactive outdoor human Pacman game using GPS).
84. Mark Weiser, The Computer for the 21st Century, 3 MOBILE COMPUTING & COMMUN. REV. 3, 3 (1999).
85. See IBM Simon, WIKIPEDIA, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon-(phone) (last modified Oct. 12, 2011).
86. See, e.g., Daniel Wagner et al., Pose Tracking From Natural Features on Mobile Phones, PROC. OF THE SEVENTH IEEE INT'L SYMP. ON MIXED & AUGMENTED REALITY 125 (2008).
87. Push technologies provide context-relevant information to the user of an augmented reality device such as a smartphone without the user having to request the information. Push Technology, WIKIPEDIA, http://en. wikipectia. Org/vrtki/Push-technology (last modified Jan. 6, 2012).
88. YELP, http://www.yelp. corn (last visited July 7, 2011);
89. see also Ben Parr, Easter Egg: Yelp Is the iPhone's First Augmented Reality App, MASHABLE (Aug. 27, 2009), http://mashable.com/2009/08/27/yelp- augmented-reality.
90. JUNAIO, http://www.junaio.com (last visited July 10, 2011) (providing an augmented reality software platform for mobile application developers).
91. LAYAR, http://www.layar.com (last visited July 1, 2011) (providing a "beautiful, fun augmented reality app that shows you the things you can't see").
92. See WIKITUDE, http://www.wilcitude.com (last visited July 1, 2011) (providing an AR application that layers point of interest information over a smartphone's camera display).
93. See Claudine Beaumont, iPhoneApp Track Sex Offenders, TELEGRAPH (July 28, 2009, 9:05 AM), http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/apple/5918923/iPhone-app- tracks-sex-offenders.html;
94. VISION 20/20, http://locator.thevision2020.com (last visited Oct. 12, 2011).
95. See Eric Smalley, Your Phone Will Soon Recognize Things It Sees, CNET (Aug. 30, 2011, 4:33 PM), http://news.cnet.com/8301-17938-105-20099536-l/your- phone-will-soon-recognizethings-it-sees (describing Layar's new "visual search" capabilities that allow smartphones to recognize text, images, objects, barcodes, and QR codes, thereby allowing users to interact with and learn about objects in their environment).
96. See Kit Eaton, Can Life Be as Browsable as the Web? Augmented Reality Outfit Metaio Thinks So, FAST COMPANY (Aug. 29, 2011), http://ww.fastcompany. com/1776893/augrnented-realityoutfit-junaio-aims-at-a-sci-fi-future-with-object- recognition (describing Junaio 3.0, which includes object, image, and barcode recognition).
97. See Holman W. Jenkins, Jr., Google and the Search for the Future, WALL ST. J., Aug. 14, 2010, at A9 (quoting Schmidt as saying, "[O]ne idea is that more and more searches are done on your behalf without you needing to type. I actually think most people don't want Google to answer their questions-They want Google to tell them what they should be doing next.").
98. See Joab Jackson, Google: Motile Map Search Surging Past Desktop Use, COMPUTERWORLD (May 25, 2011), http://www.computerworld.com/s/article/9217067/ Google-Mobile-map-search-surging-past-desktop-use.
99. See Apple Special Event: June 6, 2011, APPLE, http://events.apple.com. edgesuite.net/11piubpwiqubf 06/event (last visited Oct. 12, 2011) (announcing Apple's iCloud service, and discussing the decline of the personal computer versus mobile devices).
100. See, e.g., Neil Hughes, Use of RFID in Apple's iPhone 5 Expected to Have a "Unique" Twist, APPLE INSIDER (Feb. 17, 2011, 11:50 AM), http://www.appleinsider.com/articles/11/02/17/use-of-rfid-in-apples-iphone-5- expected-to-have-a-unique-twist.html (discussing speculation about RFID in the iPhone 5). The introduction of RFID scanning would provide smartphones with yet another means to learn about the physical environment near a user. If RFID tags become commonplace in consumer goods, for example, smartphones could read those tags and push information to a consumer about the products in the consumer's shopping cart at the grocery store or on a display in a shopping mall.
101. See Qualcomm Announces Commercial Release of Its Augmented Reality Platform, QUALCOMM (Apr. 27, 2011), http://www.qudcomm.com/news/rdeases/2011/04/ 27/qualcomm-announcescommercial-release-its-augmented-reality-platform.
102. MIKE KUNIAVSKY, SMART THINGS: UBIQUITOUS COMPUTING USER EXPERIENCE DESIGN 3 (2010);
103. See Vehicle Displays: Head Up Displays, MICROVISION, http://www. microvision. com/vehicle-displays/head-up-displays.html (last visited July 7, 2011) (demonstrating Micro Vision's proposed consumer heads up display system).
104. See Dave Banks, Toyota's "Window to the World" Offers Backseat Passengers Augmented Reality, WIRED, July 29, 2011, http://www.wired.com/ geekdad/2011/07/toyotas-window-to-theworld-offers-backseat-passengers-augmented- reality.
105. See Paul Ridden, World First GPS Goggles With Head Mounted Display, GIZMAG (Oct. 8, 2010), http://www.gizmag.com/zeal-recon-transcend-gps-head- mounted-display-goggles/16605.
106. See VUZIX, http://www.vuzix.com/consumer/products-wrap920ar.html (last visited July 7, 2011) (selling the Wrap 920AR glasses).
107. See Wearable Displays: Mobile Device Eyewear, MICROVISION, http://www.microvision. com/wearable-displays/mobile.html (last visited July 7, 2011) (providing examples of eyewear prototypes);
108. see also 3D Display System, NIT DOCOMO, http://www.nttdocomo.com/ technologies/future/3D/index.html (last visited July 7, 2011) (providing examples of Docomo's eyeglass prototypes).
109. See Babak A. Parviz, For Your Eye Only: A New Generation of Contact Lenses Built With Very Small Circuits and LEDs Promises Bionic Eyesight, IEEE SPECTRUM, Sept. 2009, at 36 (describing contact lens research).
110. See Yohan Baillot & Christine Perey, Position Paper, Intl AR Standards Meeting, AR Eyewear and Mobile Devices: The Challenges Ahead (Feb. 17, 2011), http://www.perey.com/ARStandards/Baillot-Perey-AR-Eyewear-and-Mobile- Devices.pdf (discussing challenges of developing augmented reality eyewear).
111. See About, SKTHSENSE, http://www.pranavmistry.com/projects/srxthsense (last visited June 13, 2011) (describing Sixth Sense and providing videos of its user interface).
112. See Overview, POINT TO DISCOVER, http://p2d.ftw.at (last visited Oct. 12, 2011) (explaining the Point-to-Discover research project).
113. For an overview of such developments, see Peter Frohlich et al., On the Move, Wirelessly Connected to the World, 54 COMM. ACM VIRTUAL EXTENSION, Jan. 2011, at 132 (discussing mobile spatial interaction research).
114. See ZILLOW, http://www.zillow.com (last visited July 5, 2011).
115. See CRIME MAPPING, http://www.crimemapping.com (last visited July 27, 2011) (providing map overlays of police reports about criminal activity for a variety of U. S. cities).
116. See, e.g., Fixing D. C's Schools, WASH. POST, http://www.washingtonpost. com/wp-srv/metro/interactives/dcschools/scorecard.html (last visited Dec. 27, 2011) (providing an interactive map showing school ratings, percentage of classes taught by highly qualified teachers, crime incidents, health inspection violations, and delay in repairs for city schools).
117. See, e.g., Reed v. King, 193 Cal. Rptr. 130, 133 (Ct. App. 1983) (holding that a seller's failure to disclose that a family was murdered in the house several years earlier was a material fact affecting the value of the property).
118. 350 R2d 445 (D. C. Cir. 1965).
119. See, e.g., STIKINOTES, http://www.stikinotes.com (last visited Dec. 27, 2011) (allowing consumers to leave digital location-based notes for each other).
120. See FOURSQUARE, http://www.foursquare.com (last visited June 2, 2011).
121. See Bill Slawski, Google Acquires Virtual Post-It Notes Patents, SEO BY THE SEA (Mar. 28, 2011, 9:38 AM), http://www.seobythesea.com2011/03/google- acquiresvirtual-post-it-notes-patents.
122. See FOODUCATE, http://ww.fooducate.com (last visited July 14, 2011).
123. See Dan Butcher, Mobile Bar Code Scanning Has Become Mainstream: Survey, MOBILE COMMERCE DAILY (Jan. 20, 2011), http://www.mobilecommercedaily.com/2011/ 01/20/mobile-bar-code-scanning-has-become-mainstream-survey (providing statistics on scanning via various smartphone platforms).
124. See Tobias Kowatsch et al., Tie Role of Product Reviews on Mobile Devices for In-Store Purchases: Consumers' Usage Intentions, Costs and Store Preferences, 6 INT'L J. INTERNET MARKETING & ADVERTISING 226, 235-36, 239-40 (2011) (finding that consumers may be willing to pay between 2 and 5 percent of a product's cost to have access to reviews of that product).
125. See Xsens ForceShoe, XSENS, http://www.xsens.com/en/general/forceshoe (last visited July 30, 2011) (introducing a sensor-filled shoe capable of measuring gait, torque, and other kinematics of the foot).
126. See Suzanne Kantra, Are You Ready for a Smart Fridge?, DIGITAL LIFE ON TODAY (May 2, 2011, 7:46 AM), http://digitallife.today.com/-news/2011/05/02/ 6557879-are-you-ready-for-asmart-fridge (discussing refrigerator models capable of detecting the food inside and monitoring food "sell by" dates).
127. See EPROVENANCE, http://www.eprovenance.com (last visited July 10, 2011) (offering RFID solutions to track the temperature and care of wine).
128. See Nilay Patel, Pirelli Cyber Tire Adds Some Smarts to Your Slicks, ENGADGET (Aug. 28, 2008, 8:28 PM), http://www.engadget.com/2008/08/28/pirelli- cyber-tire-adds-some-smarts-to-yourslicks (discussing the Cyber Tire, which can record pressure, temperature, and vehicle load).
129. See Dave Evans, The Internet of Things, PLATFORM (July 15, 2011, 9:00 AM), http://blogs.cisco.com/news/the-intemet-of-things-infographic (discussing a Dutch startup named Sparked that allows farmers to track catde wirelessly).
130. Florian Resatsch et al., Do Point of Sale RFID Based Information Services Make a Difference?: Analyzing Consumer Perceptions for Designing Smart Product Information Services in Retail Business, 18 ELECTRONIC MARKETS 216, 218 (2008).
131. See CARFAX, http://www.carfax.com (last visited Jan. 15, 2012).
132. See CARFAX LEMON CHECK, supra note 2.
133. See Adam Blum, NFC and the Internet of Things, VENTUREBEAT (June 21, 2011), http:/www.venturebeat.com/2011/06/21/nfc-and-the-internet-of-things ("[A]ll cars will have [near field communications] tags embedded, containing specifications, statistics and web links for more information on the vehicle.").
134. See, e.g., Diane Coutu et al, We Googled You: Should Fred Hire Mimi Despite Her Online History?, HARV. BUS. REV., June 2007, at 37, 40 ("Google anyone hard enough, and you'll find some dirt.").
135. See EBAY, http://www.ebay.com (last visited Sept. 23, 2011).
136. See, e.g., Nicholas Thompson, More Companies Pay Heed to Their Word of Mouse' Reputation, N. Y. TIMES, June 23, 2003, at C4.
137. See HEALTHGRADES, http://www.healthgrades.com (last visited Sept. 23, 2011).
138. See ANGIE'S LIST, http://www.angieslist.com (last visited Sept. 23, 2011).
139. See AWO, http://www.awo.com (last visited Sept. 23, 2011);
140. MARTINDALE. COM, http://www.martindale.com (last visited Sept. 23, 2011).
141. See RATE MY PROFESSORS, http://www.ratemyprofessors.com (last visited Sept. 23, 2011).
142. See APARTMENT RATINGS, http://wvw.apartmentratings.com (last visited Sept. 23, 2011).
143. See EPINIONS, http://www.epinions.com (last visited Sept. 23, 2011).
144. See Strahilevitz, "How's My Driving" supra note 31, at 1702 ("[This Article] explores the use of information aggregation technologies to deter, detect, and punish citizen misconduct.").
145. See Julia Angwin, Iris Recognition: The New Fingerprinting?, DIGITS (July 13, 2011, 11:40 AM), http://blogs.wsj.com/digits/2011/07/13/iris-recognition- the-new-fingerprinting (discussing improvements in iris recognition technologies).
146. See DANIEL J. SOLOVE, THE DIGITAL PERSON: TECHNOLOGY & PRIVACY IN THE INFORMATION AGE 1-2 (2004) (defining the digital dossier).
147. Jason Millar, Core Privacy: A Problem for Predictive Data Mining, in LESSONS FROM THE IDENTITY TRAIL: ANONYMITY, PRIVACY AND IDENTITY IN A NETWORKED SOCIETY 103
148. Never Never Sign a Contract With Dish Network, PISSED CONSUMER (Mar. 20, 2011), http://dish-network.pissedconsumer.com/never-never-sign-a-contract-with- dish-network-20110 320227723.html.
149. Beware of Contract Fine Print, PISSED CONSUMER (May 28, 2011), http://massageenvy.pissedconsumer.com/beware-of-contraa-fine-print- 20110528240139.html.
150. See, e.g., Protect Ameica [sic] Lied of Length of Contract, PISSED CONSUMER (Aug. 1, 2011), http://protect-america.pissedconsumer.com/protect- ameica-lied-of-length-of-contract-20110801 252674.html.
151. See, e.g., Refusal to Cancel a Contract: Life Alert Complaint, PISSED CONSUMER (Mar. 31, 2011), http://life-alert.pissedcorisumer.com/refusal-to- cancel-a-contract-20110331229880.html.
152. See, e.g., Misleading Contract/Hidden and Surprise Fees, PISSED CONSUMER (May 29, 2011), http://adt.pissedconsumer.com/misleading-contract-hidden-and- surprise-fees-20110529 240312.html (complaining mat a security system contract excluded monitoring of glass breakage and contained hidden permit fees).
153. See GOOGLE, http://www.google.com (search terms "Anytime Fitness") (last visited Jan. 25, 2012).
154. See Anytime Fitness, PISSED CONSUMER, http://anytime-fitness. pissedconsumer.com (last visited July 5, 2011).
155. See Credit Card Ratings, J. D. POWER, http://www.jdpower.com/Finance/ ratings/credit-cardratings (last visited July 7, 2011).
156. See, e.g., CARDRATINGS. COM, http://www.cardratings.com (last visited July 1, 2011).
157. See, e.g., WEBFLYER, http://www.webflyer.com (last visited July 1, 2011).
158. See CARS. COM, http://www.cars.com (last visited July 1, 2011).
159. See CLEARANCE CLUB, http://www.dearanceclub.com (last visited July 1, 2011).
160. See, e.g., BETTER BUSINESS BUREAU, supra note 12 (providing reviews of local businesses based on location information).
161. See SEARCHREVIEWS, http://www.searchreviews.com (last visited July 5, 2011) (aggregating 40 million reviews from over a thousand websites).
162. See Consumer Tipster by Consumer Reports, I'TUNES APP STORE, http://itunes.apple.com/us/app/consumerist-tipster/id443045014?mt=8 (last visited Sept. 23, 2011).
163. See BBB Search by Council of Better Business Bureaus, I'TUNES APP STORE, http://itunes.apple.com/us/app/bbb-search-find-local-businesses/id440014505?mt= 8 (last visited Sept. 23, 2011).
164. See, e.g., Jonaman Klick, The Microfoundations of Standard Form Contracts: Price Discrimination vs. Behavioral Bias, 32 FLA. ST. U. L. REV. 555, 560-64 (2005) (offering a hypothesis about standard form contracts as a price discrimination mechanism);
165. see also David Gilo & Ariel Porat, The Hidden Roles of Boilerplate and Standard-Form Contracts: Strategic Imposition of Transaction Costs, Segmentation of Consumers, and Anticompetitive Effects, 104 MICH. L. REV. 983, 988-1003 (2006);
166. Jason Scott Johnston, The Return of Bargain: An Economic Theory of How Standard-Form Contracts Enable Cooperative Negotiation Between Businesses and Consumers, 104 MICH. L. REV. 857 (2006).
167. See MICHAEL J. TREBILCOCK, THE LIMITS OF FREEDOM OF CONTRACT 102-46 (1993) (discussing information-related limits on freedom of contract).
168. For a useful overview, see Shmuel I. Becher, Asymmetric Information in Consumer Contracts: The Challenge That Is Yet to Be Met, 45 AM. BUS. L. J. 723, 725-35 (2008) (reviewing literature on information asymmetries and standard form contracts).
169. See GRANT GILMORE, THE DEATH OF CONTRACT 43 (1974) (characterizing the Willistonian view);
170. STEPHEN A. SMITH, CONTRACT THEORY 59 (2004) (defining freedom of contract as "the idea, fundamental in the orthodox understanding of contract law, that the content of a contractual obligation is a matter for the parties, not the law").
171. See Avery Wiener Katz, The Economics of Form and Substance in Contract Interpretation, 104 COLUM. L. REV. 496, 498 (2004) ("As is well known to both students and scholars of contract law,⋯ for the past one hundred years⋯ the historical trend⋯ has been to water down⋯ formal doctrines in favor of a more all-things-considered analysis of what the parties may have meant in the individual case.");
172. see also ROBERT A. HILLMAN, THE RICHNESS OF CONTRACT LAW: AN ANALYSIS AND CRITIQUE OF CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF CONTRACT LAW p125-71 (1997) (exploring the history of contextualist reforms in contract law).
173. See Friedrich Kessler, Contracts of Adhesion: Some Thoughts About Freedom of Contract, 43 COLUM. L. REV. 629 (1943) (coining the term);
174. Todd D. Rakoff, Contracts of Adhesion: An Essay in Reconstruction, 96 HARV. L. REV. 1174 (1983).
175. See, e.g., F. H. Buckley, Introduction to THE FALL AND RISE OF FREEDOM OF CONTRACT 1, 8-9 (F. H. Buckley ed., 1999) (The decline of formalism has plausibly weakened⋯ the security of exchange in contract law-the expectation that promises made in a contractual setting will be enforced. The excuses which promisors may invoke to excuse performance, such as unconscionability⋯ are much broader in scope today than they were in the nineteenth century.");
176. John E. Murray, Jr., Contract Theories and the Rise of Neoformalism, 71 FORDHAM L. REV. 869, 881 (2002) ("The rejection of formalism is pervasive in the new contract law.");
177. Robert E. Scott, The Death of Contract Law, 54 U. TORONTO L. J. 369, 374 (2004) ("The upshot is this: While state enforcement and interpretation under classical contract law is relatively formal or 'rule-like' (hard to obtain but, once liability attaches, equally hard to escape), contractual liability under the new contract law is context-specific or 'standard-like' (easy to impose liability in any particular situation, but equally easy to escape it).").
178. See Alan Schwartz & Louis L. Wilde, Imperfect Information in Markets for Contract Terms: The Examples of Warranties and Security Interests, 69 VA. L. REV. 1387, 1450-52 (1983) (providing this argument about standard form contracts).
179. See David Gilo & Ariel Porat, Viewing Unconscionability Through a Market Lens, 52 WM. & MARYL. REV. 133, 174-75 (2010).
180. David Horton, Unconscionability in the Law of Trusts, 84 NOTRE DAME L. REV. 1675, 1691 (2009) ("[A]ny attempt to set aside a form clause must explain why sellers lack incentives to draft the clause to mirror consumers' predilections.").
181. TREBILCOCK, supra note 164, at 120 (citations omitted).
182. See Alan Schwartz, How Much Irrationality Does the Market Permit?, 37 J. LEGAL STUD. 131, 136-37 (2008) (arguing that suppliers will provide efficient terms when consumers are informed).
183. See generally David Charny, The New Formalism in Contract, 66 U. CHI. L. REV. 842 (1999).
184. See, e.g., Geoffrey P. Miller, Bargains Bicoastal: New Light on Contract Theory, 31 CARDOZO L. REV. 1475, 1477-80 (2010) (arguing that commercial parties systematically choose New York law to govern their contracts; that New York law tends towards more formalist, strict construction of contracts; and that this supports Schwartz and Scott's model);
185. Alan Schwartz & Robert E. Scott, Contract Theory and the Limits of Contract Law, 113 YALE L. J. 541, 543 (limiting their theory to contracts between relatively sophisticated firms).
186. See generally Alan Schwartz & Louis L. Wilde, Intervening in Markets on the Basis of Imperfect Information: A Legal and Economic Analysis, 127 U. PA. L. REV. 630, 666-82 (1979) (making this argument);
187. see also Richard A. Epstein, The Neoclassical Economics of Consumer Contracts, 92 MINN. L. REV. 803, 804-05 (2008) ("There are⋯ two sets of⋯ circumstances in which the neoclassical theory accepts that some government intervention may make sense: private monopoly and imperfect information. ");
188. Michael I. Meyerson, The Efficient Consumer Form Contract: Law and Economics Meets the Real World, 24 GA. L. REV. 583, 595 (1990) ("[I]nefficient transactions occur because consumers do not read form contracts, or do not understand the terms, and are thus unaware of their contents.").
189. See Richard Craswell, Property Rules and Liability Rules in Unconscionability and Related Doctrines, 60 U. CHI. L. REV. 1, 63 (1993) ("[M]ost economists conclude that contracts should be overridden only if there is some 'market failure' which prevents [an efficient] outcome from being realized.");
190. See Richard Craswell, Interpreting Deceptive Advertising, 65 B. U. L. REV. 658, 720 (1985). Put differently, fraud is most likely in transactions involving "experience" and "credence" goods and least likely in transactions involving "search" goods.
191. See Avery Weiner Katz, Standard Form Contracts, in THE NEW PALGRAVE DICTIONARY OF ECONOMICS AND THE LAW 502, 502-05 (Peter Newman ed., 1998);
192. see also David M. Grether, Alan Schwartz & Louis L. Wilde, The Irrelevance of Information Overload-An Analysis of Search and Disclosure, 59 S. CAL. L. REV. 277 (1986).
193. See Howard Beales, Richard Craswell & Steven C. Salop, The Efficient Regulation of Consumer Information, 24 J. L. & ECON. 491, 501-02 (1981) (exploring how consumers produce some prepurchase information themselves from prior purchasing experiences, gain some information from other consumers, and learn some information from intermediaries, such as journalists, rating intermediaries, and others);
194. See David Lat, Do Lawyers Actually Read Boilerplate Contracts? Richard Posner and Evan Chester Don't; Do You?, ABOVE THE LAW (June 22, 2010, 2:42 PM), http://abovethelaw.com/2010/06/do-lawyers-actaully-readboilerplate-contracts- judge-richard-posner-doesnt-do-you.
195. See Shmuel I. Becher & Tal Z. Zarsky, E-Contract Doctrine 2.0: Standard Form Contracting in the Age of Online User Participation, 14 MICH. TELECOMM. & TECH. L. REV. 303, 311 (2008) (reviewing literature skeptical of the "informed minority" theory);
196. R. Ted Cruz & Jeffrey J. Hinck, Not My Brother's Keeper: The Inability of an Informed Minority to Correct for Imperfect Information, 47 HASTINGS L. J. 635, 657-58 (1996). (Pubitemid 126406868)
197. See Robert A. Hillman, Online Boilerplate: Would Mandatory Website Disclosure of E-Standard Terms Backfire?, 104 MICH. L. REV. 837, 853 (2006) (noting that watchdog groups "may be insufficient to deter businesses from drafting marginal terms mat may not create significant repurational concerns but would harm consumers just the same").
198. See Robert A. Hillman & Ibrahim Barakat, Warranties and Disclaimers in the Electronic Age, 11 YALE J. L. & TECH. 1, 2 (2009) (finding that consumers do not read online terms);
199. Florencia Marotta-Wurgler, Are "Pay Now, Terms Later" Contracts Worse for Buyers? Evidence From Software License Agreements, 38 J. LEGAL STUD. 309, 309-17 (2009) (reviewing literature).
200. But see Shmuel I. Becher & Esther Unger-Aviram, The Law of Standard Form Contracts: Misguided Intuitions and Suggestions for Reconstruction, 8 DEPAUL BUS. & COM. L. J. 199, 212-17 (2010) (presenting empirical evidence that consumers may read standard form contracts more often than assumed).
201. Daniel D. Barnhizer, Propertization Metaphors for Bargaining Power and Control of the Self in the Information Age, 54 CLEV. ST. L. REV. 69, 108 (2006).
202. For discussion of these different types of goods, see generally Phillip Nelson, Information and Consumer Behavior, 78 J. POL. ECON. 311 (1970) (drawing distinctions between search, experience, and credence goods).
203. The argument in this Subpart has certain limited parallels with Fairfield's recent "search theory" of contract. See generally Joshua A. T. Fairfield, The Search Interest in Contract, 92 IOWA L. REV. 1237 (2007). Fairfield argues that contract theorists need to attend more to the reality that parties can search for contracts with which they agree, and that when they choose not to search for or review contracts in this way, this may be a rational response to search costs.
204. See Joshua Fairfield, The Cost of Consent: Optimal Standardization in the Law of Contract, 58 EMORY L. J. 1401 (2009). My focus, on the other hand, is on showing how technology is decreasing transaction costs-particularly sorting and signaling costs-and thereby changing asymmetric information arguments for distrusting consumer contracts.
205. See JOHN HORRIGAN, PEW INTERNET & AM. LIFE PROJECT, MOBILE ACCESS TO DATA AND INFORMATION 1(2008), available at http://www.pewintemet.org/~/media// Files/Reports/2008/PIP-Mobile. DataAccess.pdf.pdf.
206. See, e.g., Hill v. Gateway 2000, Inc., 105 F.3d 1147, 1149 (7th Cir. 1997) ("Cashiers cannot be expected to read legal documents to customers before ringing up sales.").
207. See Hill, 105 F.3d at 1149 ("And oral recitation would not avoid customers' assertions⋯ that the clerk did not read term X to them-").
208. 276 N. E.2d 144 (Ind. 1971).
209. See Robert H. Gertner, Disclosure and Unraveling, in THE NEW PALGRAVE DICTIONARY OF ECONOMICS AND THE LAW, supra note 187, at 605, 605.
210. See Paul R. Milgrom, Good News and Bad News: Representation Theorems and Applications, 12 BELL J. ECON. 380, 388 (1981) (discussing the salesman's incentive to fully disclose product quality because of a similar unraveling effect).
211. See Sanford J. Grossman, The Informational Role of Warranties and Private Disclosure About Product Quality, 24 J. L. & ECON. 461 (1981);
212. S. J. Grossman & O. D. Hart, Disclosure Laws and Takeover Bids, 35 J. FIN. 323, 323 (1980) ("[i]f there is no transactions cost then it will always be in the seller's interest to disclose the quality of [an] item voluntarily.").
213. Although Grossman and Milgrom are generally credited with identifying the effect, Kip Viscusi first used the term "unraveling" in this context. See W. Kip Viscusi, A Note on "Lemons" Markets With Quality Certification, 9 BELL J. ECON. 277, 278 (1978) ("[E]nterprises or individuals at the above-average end of the quality spectrum successively distinguish themselves from the group in a process that unravels from the top down. ");
214. see also W. KIP VISCUSI, RISK BY CHOICE: REGULATING HEALTH AND SAFETY IN THE WORKPLACE 86 (1983) (discussing unraveling).
215. There do not necessarily need to be formal or legal sanctions for misrepresentation. See Trevon Logan & Manisha Shah, Face Value: Information and Signaling in an Illegal Market (Natl Bureau of Econ. Research, Working Paper No. 14841, 2009), available at http://papers.ssrn. com/sol3/papers.cfm? abstract-id=1376153 (demonstrating that male sex workers disclose face pictures readily and accurately and that unraveling is sufficiently supported by informal enforcement mechanisms to overcome adverse selection).
216. ROBERT H. FRANK, PASSIONS WITHIN REASON: THE STRATEGIC ROLE OFTHE EMOTIONS 106 (1988).
217. See Scott R. Peppet, Unraveling Privacy: The Personal Prospectus and the Threat of a Full-Disclosure Future, 105 NW. U. L. REV. 1153, 1191-92 (2011) (discussing reduced transaction costs and their impact on the unraveling effect).
218. 350 F.2d 445 (D. C. Or. 1965). subordinate clause should be able to do so by adequately disclosing the meaning and effect of that clause").
219. Russell Korobkin, A "Traditional" and "Behavioral" Law-and-Economics Analysis of Williams v. Walker-Thomas Furniture Company, 26 U. HAW. L. REV. 441, 455 (2004).
220. See 8 SAMUEL WHUSTON & RICHARD A. LORD, A TREATISE ON THE LAW OF CONTRACTS § 18:9 (4th ed. 2010) (describing elements of unconscionability, including whether the terms were explained).
221. See U. C. C. § 2-302 cmt. 1 (2005);
222. E. ALLAN FARNSWORTH, CONTRACTS § 4. 29a (3d ed. 2004).
223. 327 F. Supp. 2d 678 (N. D. Miss. 2004).
224. * 4 (Wash. Ct. App. May 12, 2008) (finding that arbitration in a standard form contract was not unconscionable where the cover page clearly stated that disputes would be sent to arbitration).
225. 428 F.3d 1359 (11th Cir. 2005).
226. 972 P.2d 395 (Utah 1998).
227. 956 P.2d 156 (Okla. Civ. App. 1997).
228. see also Burd v. KL Shangri-Law Owners, L. P., 67 P.3d 927, 930 (Okla. Civ. App. 2003) (noting that the plaintiff did not have access to a video as the plaintiff had in Manning, this supported the court's finding that the contract term at issue in Burdwas insufficiendy explained).
229. No. 1:08-cv-00960-AWI-GSA, 2008 WL 4615044 (E. D. Cal. Oct. 17, 2008).
230. see also Motsinger v. Lithia Rose-FT, Inc., 156 P.3d 156 (Or. Ct. App. 2007) (holding that an arbitration clause in an employment agreement was not procedurally unconscionable, in part because all employees were shown an explanatory video at the time of employment).
231. See, e.g., Kent H. Barnett, Lending a Helping Hand?: A Guide to Kentucky's New Predatory Lending Law, 93 KY. LJ. 473, 497 (2005) (discussing Kentucky's predatory lending law requiring lenders of high-cost home loans to make available a videotape explaining the borrower's rights).
232. See, e.g, Bing Liu, Sentiment Analysis and Subjectivity, in HANDBOOK OF NATURAL LANGUAGE PROCESSING (Nitin Indurkhya & Fred J. Damerau eds., 2d ed. 2010);
233. B. Pang & L. Lee, Opinion Mining and Sentiment Analysis, 2 FOUND. & TRENDS IN INFO. RETRIEVAL 1 (2008).
234. See, e.g., Nishanth V. Chari, Disciplining Standard Form Contract Terms Through Online Information Flows: An Empirical Study, 85 N. Y. U. L. REV. 1618, 1622 (2010) (suggesting that positive online consumer rankings of products often correlate with more pro-seller standard form contract terms and, therefore, that online rankings do not serve as useful consumer information as to the nature of such terms). Chari's study is among the first to empirically test some of the issues here. The study, however, attempted to correlate general product reviews (for example, how good is this product?) with the one-sidedness of contract terms. Although this is one useful means of consumer-to-consumer information exchange, Part I of this Article shows that consumers are now sharing information about contract terms much more direcdy, through particularized consumer reviews that discuss contract terms specifically.
235. See What Does It Mean to Sign In With Facebook?, TRIPADVISOR, http://wuw.tripadvisor.com/help/what-does-it-mean-to-be-fecebook-connected (last visited Aug. 21, 2011).
236. See Robert A. Hillman, Online Boilerplate: Would Mandatory Website Disclosure of E-Standard Terms Backfire?, 104 MICH. L. REV. 837, 840 (2006).
237. For a wonderful futuristic video depiction of what such a world might be like, see SCIVEE, http://www.scivee.tv/node/17965 (last visited Dec. 27, 2011).
238. See FARNSWORTH, supra note 237, § 4. 1 (discussing capacity as a limitation);
239. See Alan Schwartz, A Reexamination of Nonsubstantive Unconscionability, 63 VA. L. REV. 1053, 1076-82 (1977) (discussing the "inferences of incompetence" that courts sometimes make about the poor or undereducated).
240. See, e.g., Shmuel I. Becher, Behavioral Science and Consumer Standard Form Contracts, 68 LA. L. REV. 117, 178 (2007) ("[B]ehavioral insights demonstrate that people sometimes make bad choices even where good information is available.");
241. Michael G. Faure & Hanneke A. Luth, Behavioral Economics in Unfair Contract Terms: Cautions and Considerations, 34 J. CONSUMER POLY 337, 342-45 (2011) (reviewing behavioral law and economics of standard form consumer contracts).
242. For a general introduction to behavioral law and economics, see BEHAVIORAL LAW AND ECONOMICS (Cass R Sunstein ed., 2000);
243. Christine Jolls, Cass R. Sunstein & Richard Thaler, A Behavioral Approach to Law and Economics, 50 STAN. L. REV. 1471 (1998); (Pubitemid 128421723)
244. Russell B. Korobkin & Thomas S. Ulen, Law and Behavioral Science: Removing the Rationality Assumption From Law and Economics, 88 CALIF. L. REV. 1051 (2000).
245. See generally Oren Bar-Gill, Seduction by Plastic, 98 NW. U. L. REV. 1373 (2004);
246. Colin Camerer et al., Regulation for Conservatives: Behavioral Economics and the Case for "Asymmetric Paternalism", 151 U. PA. L. REV. 1211 (2003);
247. Gillian K. Hadfield, An Expressive Theory of Contract: From Feminist Dilemmas to a Reconceptualization of Rational Choice in Contract Law, 146 U. PA. L. REV. 1235 (1998); (Pubitemid 128443680)
248. Ronald J. Mann, "Contracting" for Credit, 104 MICH. L. REV. 899 (2006).
249. See Victoria Nourse & Gregory Shaffer, Varieties of New Legal Realism: Can a New World Order Prompt a New Legal Theory?, 95 CORNELL L. REV. 61, 77 (2009) ("Behavioral economics represents a frontal assault within economics itself on the simplifying assumptions of neoclassical law and economics.").
250. See generally J. D. Trout, Paternalism and Cognitive Bias, 24 LAW & PHIL. 393 (2005) (connecting paternalism arguments to the behavioral law and economics of contract).
251. See, e.g., Neil D. Weinstein, Unrealistic Optimism About Future Life Events, 39 J. PERSONALITY & SOC. PSYCHOL. 806, 810 (1980).
252. See Amos Tversky & Daniel Kahneman, Availability: A Heuristic for Judging Frequency and Probability, in JUDGMENT UNDER UNCERTAINTY: HEURISTICS AND BIASES 163, 166 (Kahneman et al. eds., 1982).
253. See Jeremy A. Blumenthal, Emotional Paternalism, 35 FLA. ST. U. L. REV. 1, 25 (2007) ("[B]ecause breach of contract tends overall to be atypical, contracting parties might be vulnerable to the heuristic and mispredict the likelihood of breach-").
254. 350 F.2d 445 (D. C. Cir. 1965).
255. Cognitive biases have also been used to justify intervention in employment contracts, such as atwill and arbitration provisions. See, e.g., Samuel Issacharoff, Contracting for Employment: The Limited Return of the Common Law, 74 TEX. L. REV. 1783, 1800 (1996) (arguing that employees underestimate the importance of severance agreements); (Pubitemid 126393986)
256. Rena Mara Samole, Real Employees: Cognitive Psychology and the Adjudication of Non-Competition Agreements, 4 WASH. U. J. L. & POLY 289, 320 (2000) (arguing that limitations of human cognition justify judicial intervention in noncompete clauses).
257. See, e.g., Jeffiey J. Rachlinski, A Positive Psychological Theory of Judging in Hindsight, 65 U. CHI. L. REV. 571, 586 (1998) (discussing the difficulty of correcting certain biases). (Pubitemid 128443620)
258. See, e.g., Baruch Fischhoff, Debiasing, in JUDGMENT UNDER UNCERTAINTY: HEURISTICS AND BIASES, supra note 271, at 422 (discussing debiasing techniques);
259. Emily Pronin et al., Understanding Misunderstanding: Social Psychological Perspectives, in HEURISTICS AND BIASES: THE PSYCHOLOGY OF INTUITIVE JUDGMENT 636, 660 (Thomas Gilovich et al eds., 2002).
260. Sirius Keeps Billing After Contract Expires!, PISSED CONSUMER (May 31, 2001), http://sirius-satelli te-radio.pissedconsumer.com/sirius-keeps-billing- after-contTact-expires-2011 0531240638.html.
261. See Overview of BBB Grade, BETTER BUSINESS BUREAU, http://www.bbb.org/ businessreviews/ratings (last visited Aug. 1, 2011) (explaining its grading methodology).
262. See, e.g., Felix von Reischach et al., A Mobile Product Recommendation System Interacting With Tagged Products, PERCOM 2009, Mar. 2009 (reviewing research on mobile recommendation systems).
263. See generally RICHARD H. THALER & CASS R. SUNSTEIN, NUDGE: IMPROVING DECISIONS ABOUT HEALTH, WEALTH, AND HAPPINESS (2008).
264. See, e.g., Linda Babcock et al., Creating Convergence: Debiasing Biased Litigants, 22 LAW & SOC. INQUIRY 913, 917 (1999) (finding that explaining the overconfidence bias to mock litigants and urging them to consider the weaknesses of their case helped to mitigate self-serving biases).
265. See, e.g., Richard P. Larrick, Debiasing, in BLACKWELL HANDBOOK OF JUDGMENT AND DECISION MAKING 316, 323-24 Perek J. Koehler & Nigel Harvey eds., 2004) (reviewing "consider the opposite" debiasing strategies);
266. Gregory Mitchell, Libertarian Paternalism Is an Oxymoron, 99 NW. U. L. REV. 1245, 1277 (2005) (reviewing literature on successful debiasing).
267. see also Neil D. Weinstein & William M. Klein, Unrealistic Optimism: Present and Future, 15 J. SOC. & CLINICAL PSYCHOL. 1 (1996) (reviewing studies).
268. See Yvonne Rogers et al., Ambient Influence: Can Twinkly Lights Lure and Abstract Representations Trigger Behavioral Change?, IMCOMP 2010, Sept. 2010, at 261.
269. See Jon Bird et al., The Augmented Shopping Trolley: An Ambient Display to Provide Shoppers With Non-Obvious Product Information, PINC 2011, May 8, 2011 (describing project);
270. Vaiva Kalnikaite et al., How to Nudge In Situ. Designing Lambent Devices to Deliver Salient Information in Supermarkets, UBICOMP 2011, Sept. 2011 (finding that the augmented "shopping handle generated a significant nudge effect, influencing what products people chose and placed in their shopping trolleys").
271. See, e.g., Jasminko Novak, Ubiquitous Computing and the Socially-Aware Consumer-Support Systems in the Augmented Supermarket, PROC. OF THE FIRST INTL WORKSHOP ON SOC. IMPLEMENTATION OF UBIQUITOUS COMPUTING (2005) (examining use of technology to nudge consumers toward socially desired decisions).
272. See Robyn Whittaker et al., Mobile Phone-Based Interventions fir Smoking Cessation, 4 COCHRANE LIBRARY (2009) (reviewing literature).
273. See, e.g., Parisa Eslambolchilar et al., Nudge & Influence Through Mobile Devices, MOBILEHCI 2010, Sept. 2010, at 527 (reviewing literature, and noting that "[t]he use of digital technology is central to make behavioral changes").
274. see also RONALD J. MANN, CHARGING AHEAD: THE GROWTH AND REGULATION OF PAYMENT CARD MARKETS 160 (2006) (arguing that "the most obvious point to focus a disclosure would be at the point of borrowing" and that "a judicious response would settle for the disclosure of information that is sufficiendy simple to be understood by a typical cardholder and to be implemented by an issuer relatively cheaply").
275. 15 U. S. C. §§ 1601-1667f (2006).
276. See 15 U. S. C. § 1639 (a) (1) (B).
277. Yvonne Rogers et al., Projecting Instant Information In Situ. Can It Help Us Make More Informed Decisions?, PERVASIVE 2010 WORKSHOP ON PERSONAL PROJECTION, May 2010.
278. See Felix von Reischach et al., An Evaluation of Product Review Modalities for Mobile Phones, MOBILEHCI 2010, Sept. 2010.
279. For an overview, see Silvana Aciar et al., Informed Recommender. Basing Recommendations on Consumer Product Reviews, 22 INTELLIGENT SYS. 39 (2007) (discussing various studies).