Secondary neuroprotective effects of hypotensive drugs and potential mechanisms of action

Expert Review of Ophthalmology

Volumn 7, Issue 2, 2012, Pages 161-175

  Shih, Grace C ^a   Calkins, David J ^a  

^a VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

carbonic anhydrase inhibitors; glaucoma; neuroprotection; optic nerve degeneration; prostaglandins; agonists; antagonists

Indexed keywords

ALPHA 2 ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR STIMULATING AGENT; APRACLONIDINE; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; BETAXOLOL; BRAIN DERIVED NEUROTROPHIC FACTOR; BRIMONIDINE; BRINZOLAMIDE; CARBONATE DEHYDRATASE INHIBITOR; CYCLOOXYGENASE 2; DORZOLAMIDE; FIBROBLAST GROWTH FACTOR 2; LATANOPROST; MEMANTINE; METIPRANOLOL; N METHYL DEXTRO ASPARTIC ACID RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; PROSTAGLANDIN DERIVATIVE; PROTEIN BCL 2; PROTEIN BCL XL; TIMOLOL;

BLOOD FLOW VELOCITY; DRUG MECHANISM; DUODENUM ULCER; EXCITOTOXICITY; GLAUCOMA; HUMAN; INTRAOCULAR HYPERTENSION; INTRAOCULAR PRESSURE; NEGATIVE FEEDBACK; NERVE DEGENERATION; NERVE FIBER TRANSPORT; NEUROLOGIC DISEASE; NEUROPROTECTION; NEUROTRANSMISSION; NONHUMAN; OPEN ANGLE GLAUCOMA; OPTIC NERVE; OSTEOPOROSIS; OXIDATIVE STRESS; RETINA BLOOD FLOW; RETINA DEGENERATION; RETINA GANGLION CELL; REVIEW; STOMACH ULCER;

EID: 84859191277     PISSN: 17469899     EISSN: 17469902     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1586/eop.12.13     Document Type: Review

References (125)

1. Quigley HA, Broman AT. The number of people with glaucoma worldwide in 2010 and 2020. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 90(3), 262-267 (2006).
2. Friedman DS, Wolfs RC, O'Colmain BJ et al. Prevalence of open-angle glaucoma among adults in the United States. Arch. Ophthalmol. 122(4), 532-538 (2004).
3. Sommer A, Tielsch JM, Katz J et al. Racial differences in the cause-specific prevalence of blindness in east Baltimore. N. Engl. J. Med. 325(20), 1412-1417 (1991).
4. Leske MC, Heijl A, Hussein M, Bengtsson B, Hyman L, Komaroff E. Factors for glaucoma progression and the effect of treatment: the early manifest glaucoma trial. Arch. Ophthalmol. 121(1), 48-56 (2003).
5. Heijl A, Leske MC, Bengtsson B, Hyman L, Hussein M. Reduction of intraocular pressure and glaucoma progression: results from the Early Manifest Glaucoma Trial. Arch. Ophthalmol. 120(10), 1268-1279 (2002).
6. Miglior S, Pfeiffer N, Torri V, Zeyen T, Cunha-Vaz J, Adamsons I. Predictive factors for open-angle glaucoma among patients with ocular hypertension in the European Glaucoma Prevention Study. Ophthalmology 114(1), 3-9 (2007).
7. Ekstrom C. Risk factors for incident open-angle glaucoma: a population-based 20-year follow-up study. Acta Ophthalmol. doi:10.1111/j.1755- 3768.2010.01943.x (2010) (Epub ahead of print).
8. Cedrone C, Mancino R, Cerulli A, Cesareo M, Nucci C. Epidemiology of primary glaucoma: prevalence, incidence, and blinding effects. Prog. Brain Res. 173, 3-14 (2008).
9. Bengtsson B, Leske MC, Hyman L, Heijl A. Fluctuation of intraocular pressure and glaucoma progression in the early manifest glaucoma trial. Ophthalmology 114(2), 205-209 (2007).
10. Maier PC, Funk J, Schwarzer G, Antes G, Falck-Ytter YT. Treatment of ocular hypertension and open angle glaucoma: meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. BMJ 331(7509), 134 (2005).
11. Kass MA, Heuer DK, Higginbotham EJ et al. The Ocular Hypertension Treatment Study: a randomized trial determines that topical ocular hypotensive medication delays or prevents the onset of primary open-angle glaucoma. Arch. Ophthalmol. 120(6), 701-713; discussion 829-830 (2002).
12. Tielsch JM, Katz J, Quigley HA, Javitt JC, Sommer A. Diabetes, intraocular pressure, and primary open-angle glaucoma in the Baltimore Eye Survey. Ophthalmology 102(1), 48-53 (1995).
13. Klein BE, Klein R, Knudtson MD. Intraocular pressure and systemic blood pressure: longitudinal perspective: the Beaver Dam Eye Study. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 89(3), 284-287 (2005).
14. Mitchell P, Smith W, Attebo K, Healey PR. Prevalence of open-angle glaucoma in Australia. The Blue Mountains Eye Study. Ophthalmology 103(10), 1661-1669 (1996).
15. Sommer A, Tielsch JM, Katz J et al. Relationship between intraocular pressure and primary open angle glaucoma among white and black Americans. The Baltimore Eye Survey. Arch. Ophthalmol. 109(8), 1090-1095 (1991).
16. Shields MB. Normal-tension glaucoma: is it different from primary open-angle glaucoma? Curr. Opin. Ophthalmol. 19(2), 85-88 (2008).
17. Anderson D. Collaborative normal tension glaucoma study. Curr. Opin. Ophthalmol. 14(2), 89-90 (2003).
18. Wheat JL, Rangaswamy NV, Harwerth RS. Correlating RNFL thickness by OCT with perimetric sensitivity in glaucoma patients. J. Glaucoma 21(2), 95-101 (2012).
19. Harwerth RS, Wheat JL, Fredette MJ, Anderson DR. Linking structure and function in glaucoma. Prog. Retin. Eye Res. 29(4), 249-271 (2010).
20. Harwerth RS, Vilupuru AS, Rangaswamy NV, Smith EL III. The relationship between nerve fiber layer and perimetry measurements. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 48(2), 763-773 (2007).
21. Anderson DR, Hendrickson A. Effect of intraocular pressure on rapid axoplasmic transport in monkey optic nerve. Invest. Ophthalmol. 13(10), 771-783 (1974).
22. Minckler DS, Tso MO, Zimmerman LE. A light microscopic, autoradiographic study of axoplasmic transport in the optic nerve head during ocular hypotony, increased intraocular pressure, and papilledema. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 82(5), 741-757 (1976).
23. Minckler DS, Bunt AH, Johanson GW. Orthograde and retrograde axoplasmic transport during acute ocular hypertension in the monkey. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 16(5), 426-441 (1977).
24. Quigley HA, Addicks EM, Green WR, Maumenee AE. Optic nerve damage in human glaucoma. II. The site of injury and susceptibility to damage. Arch. Ophthalmol. 99(4), 635-649 (1981).
25. Hollander H, Makarov F, Stefani FH, Stone J. Evidence of constriction of optic nerve axons at the lamina cribrosa in the normotensive eye in humans and other mammals. Ophthalmic Res. 27(5), 296-309 (1995).
26. Burgoyne CF, Downs JC, Bellezza AJ, Suh JK, Hart RT. The optic nerve head as a biomechanical structure: a new paradigm for understanding the role of IOP-related stress and strain in the pathophysiology of glaucomatous optic nerve head damage. Prog. Retin. Eye Res. 24(1), 39-73 (2005).
27. Pease ME, McKinnon SJ, Quigley HA, Kerrigan-Baumrind LA, Zack DJ. Obstructed axonal transport of BDNF and its receptor TRKB in experimental glaucoma. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 41(3), 764-774 (2000).
28. Quigley HA, McKinnon SJ, Zack DJ et al. Retrograde axonal transport of BDNF in retinal ganglion cells is blocked by acute IOP elevation in rats. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 41(11), 3460-3466 (2000).
29. Crish SD, Sappington RM, Inman DM, Horner PJ, Calkins DJ. Distal axonopathy with structural persistence in glaucomatous neurodegeneration. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 107(11), 5196-5201 (2010).
30. Crish SD, Calkins DJ. Neurodegeneration in glaucoma: progression and calcium-dependent intracellular mechanisms. Neuroscience 176, 1-11 (2011).
31. Quigley HA. Neuronal death in glaucoma. Prog. Retin. Eye Res. 18(1), 39-57 (1999).
32. McKinnon SJ, Lehman DM, Kerrigan- Baumrind LA et al. Caspase activation and amyloid precursor protein cleavage in rat ocular hypertension. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 43(4), 1077-1087 (2002).
33. Tahzib NG, Ransom NL, Reitsamer HA, McKinnon SJ. Alpha-fodrin is cleaved by caspase-3 in a chronic ocular hypertensive (COH) rat model of glaucoma. Brain Res. Bull. 62(6), 491-495 (2004).
34. Waldmeier PC, Tatton WG. Interrupting apoptosis in neurodegenerative disease: potential for effective therapy? Drug Discov. Today 9(5), 210-218 (2004).
35. Huang W, Dobberfuhl A, Filippopoulos T et al. Transcriptional up-regulation and activation of initiating caspases in experimental glaucoma. Am. J. Pathol. 167(3), 673-681 (2005).
36. Qu J, Wang D, Grosskreutz CL. Mechanisms of retinal ganglion cell injury and defense in glaucoma. Exp. Eye Res. 91(1), 48-53 (2010).
37. Schlamp CL, Li Y, Dietz JA, Janssen KT, Nickells RW. Progressive ganglion cell loss and optic nerve degeneration in DBA/2J mice is variable and asymmetric. BMC Neurosci. 7, 66 (2006).
38. Stevens B, Allen NJ, Vazquez LE et al. The classical complement cascade mediates CNS synapse elimination. Cell 131(6), 1164-1178 (2007).
39. Howell GR, Libby RT, Jakobs TC et al. Axons of retinal ganglion cells are insulted in the optic nerve early in DBA/2J glaucoma. J. Cell. Biol. 179(7), 1523-1537 (2007).
40. Buckingham BP, Inman DM, Lambert W et al. Progressive ganglion cell degeneration precedes neuronal loss in a mouse model of glaucoma. J. Neurosci. 28(11), 2735-2744 (2008).
41. Fu QL, Li X, Shi J et al. Synaptic degeneration of retinal ganglion cells in a rat ocular hypertension glaucoma model. Cell. Mol. Neurobiol. 29(4), 575-581 (2009).
42. Libby RT, Li Y, Savinova OV et al. Susceptibility to neurodegeneration in a glaucoma is modified by Bax gene dosage. PLoS Genet. 1(1), 17-26 (2005).
43. Coleman M. Axon degeneration mechanisms: commonality amid diversity. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 6(11), 889-898 (2005).
44. McKinnon SJ. Glaucoma: ocular Alzheimer's disease? Front. Biosci. 8, S1140-S1156 (2003).
45. Steele MR, Inman DM, Calkins DJ, Horner PJ, Vetter ML. Microarray analysis of retinal gene expression in the DBA/2J model of glaucoma. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 47(3), 977-985 (2006).
46. Kong GY, Van Bergen NJ, Trounce IA, Crowston JG. Mitochondrial dysfunction and glaucoma. J. Glaucoma 18(2), 93-100 (2009).
47. Son JL, Soto I, Oglesby E et al. Glaucomatous optic nerve injury involves early astrocyte reactivity and late oligodendrocyte loss. Glia 58(7), 780-789 (2010).
48. Guo L, Tsatourian V, Luong V et al. En face optical coherence tomography: a new method to analyse structural changes of the optic nerve head in rat glaucoma. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 89(9), 1210-1216 (2005).
49. Hernandez MR. The optic nerve head in glaucoma: role of astrocytes in tissue remodeling. Prog. Retin. Eye Res. 19(3), 297-321 (2000).
50. Tezel G, Hernandez MR, Wax MB. In vitro evaluation of reactive astrocyte migration, a component of tissue remodeling in glaucomatous optic nerve head. Glia 34(3), 178-189 (2001).
51. Nakazawa T, Nakazawa C, Matsubara A et al. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha mediates oligodendrocyte death and delayed retinal ganglion cell loss in a mouse model of glaucoma. J. Neurosci. 26(49), 12633-12641 (2006).
52. Hiraoka M, Inoue K, Ninomiya T, Takada M. Ischaemia in the Zinn-Haller circle and glaucomatous optic neuropathy in macaque monkeys. Trans. Am. Ophthalmol. Soc. 101, 163-169; discussion 169-171 (2003).
53. Kuehn MH, Fingert JH, Kwon YH. Retinal ganglion cell death in glaucoma: mechanisms and neuroprotective strategies. Ophthalmol. Clin. North Am. 18(3), 383-395, vi (2005).
54. Rokicki W, Dorecka M, Romaniuk W. [Retinal ganglion cells death in glaucoma - mechanism and potential treatment. Part II]. Klin. Oczna 109(7-9), 353-355 (2007).
55. Osborne NN, Ugarte M, Chao M et al. Neuroprotection in relation to retinal ischemia and relevance to glaucoma. Surv. Ophthalmol. 43(Suppl. 1), S102-S128 (1999).
56. Yoshida Y, Sugiyama T, Utsunomiya K, Ogura Y, Ikeda T. A pilot study for the effects of donepezil therapy on cerebral and optic nerve head blood flow, visual field defect in normal-tension glaucoma. J. Ocul. Pharmacol. Ther. 26(2), 187-192 (2010).
57. Harris A, Chung HS, Ciulla TA, Kagemann L. Progress in measurement of ocular blood flow and relevance to our understanding of glaucoma and age-related macular degeneration. Prog. Retin. Eye Res. 18(5), 669-687 (1999).
58. Bathija R. Optic nerve blood flow in glaucoma. Clin. Exp. Optom. 83(3), 180-184 (2000).
59. Zhao DY, Cioffi GA. Anterior optic nerve microvascular changes in human glaucomatous optic neuropathy. Eye (Lond.) 14(Pt 3B), 445-449 (2000).
60. Grunwald JE, Piltz J, Hariprasad SM, DuPont J. Optic nerve and choroidal circulation in glaucoma. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 39(12), 2329-2336 (1998).
61. Osborne NN, Wood JP, Chidlow G, Casson R, DeSantis L, Schmidt KG. Effectiveness of levobetaxolol and timolol at blunting retinal ischaemia is related to their calcium and sodium blocking activities: relevance to glaucoma. Brain Res. Bull. 62(6), 525-528 (2004).
62. Ogidigben M, Chu TC, Potter DE. Alpha-2 adrenoceptor mediated changes in aqueous dynamics: effect of pertussis toxin. Exp. Eye Res. 58(6), 729-736 (1994).
63. Toris CB, Camras CB, Yablonski ME. Acute versus chronic effects of brimonidine on aqueous humor dynamics in ocular hypertensive patients. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 128(1), 8-14 (1999).
64. Woldemussie E, Wijono M, Pow D. Localization of alpha 2 receptors in ocular tissues. Vis. Neurosci. 24(5), 745-756 (2007).
65. Matsuo T, Cynader MS. Localization of alpha-2 adrenergic receptors in the human eye. Ophthalmic Res. 24(4), 213-219 (1992).
66. Wheeler LA, Lai R, Woldemussie E. From the lab to the clinic: activation of an alpha-2 agonist pathway is neuroprotective in models of retinal and optic nerve injury. Eur. J. Ophthalmol. 9(Suppl. 1), S17-S21 (1999).
67. Yoles E, Wheeler LA, Schwartz M. Alpha2-adrenoreceptor agonists are neuroprotective in a rat model of optic nerve degeneration. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 40(1), 65-73 (1999).
68. Pinar-Sueiro S, Urcola H, Rivas MA, Vecino E. Prevention of retinal ganglion cell swelling by systemic brimonidine in a rat experimental glaucoma model. Clin. Experiment. Ophthalmol. 39(8), 799-807 (2011).
69. Lambert WS, Ruiz L, Crish SD, Wheeler LA, Calkins DJ. Brimonidine prevents axonal and somatic degeneration of retinal ganglion cell neurons. Mol. Neurodegener. 6(1), 4 (2011).
70. Saylor M, McLoon LK, Harrison AR, Lee MS. Experimental and clinical evidence for brimonidine as an optic nerve and retinal neuroprotective agent: an evidence-based review. Arch. Ophthalmol. 127(4), 402-406 (2009).
71. Gao H, Qiao X, Cantor LB, WuDunn D. Up-regulation of brain-derived neurotrophic factor expression by brimonidine in rat retinal ganglion cells. Arch. Ophthalmol. 120(6), 797-803 (2002).
72. Lai RK, Chun T, Hasson D, Lee S, Mehrbod F, Wheeler L. Alpha-2 adrenoceptor agonist protects retinal function after acute retinal ischemic injury in the rat. Vis. Neurosci. 19(2), 175-185 (2002).
73. Tatton W, Chen D, Chalmers-Redman R, Wheeler L, Nixon R, Tatton N. Hypothesis for a common basis for neuroprotection in glaucoma and Alzheimer's disease: anti-apoptosis by alpha-2-adrenergic receptor activation. Surv. Ophthalmol. 48(Suppl. 1), S25-S37 (2003).
74. Dong CJ, Guo Y, Agey P, Wheeler L, Hare WA. Alpha2 adrenergic modulation of NMDA receptor function as a major mechanism of RGC protection in experimental glaucoma and retinal excitotoxicity. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 49(10), 4515-4522 (2008).
75. Polska E, Simader C, Weigert G et al. Regulation of choroidal blood flow during combined changes in intraocular pressure and arterial blood pressure. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 48(8), 3768-3774 (2007).
76. Quaranta L, Gandolfo F, Turano R et al. Effects of topical hypotensive drugs on circadian IOP, blood pressure, and calculated diastolic ocular perfusion pressure in patients with glaucoma. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 47(7), 2917-2923 (2006).
77. Dawidek GM, Robinson MI. Beta-adrenergic receptors in human anterior optic nerve: an autoradiographic study. Eye (Lond.) 7(Pt 1), 122-126 (1993).
78. Dailey RA, Brubaker RF, Bourne WM. The effects of timolol maleate and acetazolamide on the rate of aqueous formation in normal human subjects. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 93(2), 232-237 (1982).
79. Cheon EW, Park CH, Kang SS et al. Betaxolol attenuates retinal ischemia/ reperfusion damage in the rat. Neuroreport 14(15), 1913-1917 (2003).
80. Seki M, Tanaka T, Matsuda H et al. Topically administered timolol and dorzolamide reduce intraocular pressure and protect retinal ganglion cells in a rat experimental glaucoma model. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 89(4), 504-507 (2005).
81. Goto W, Ota T, Morikawa N et al. Protective effects of timolol against the neuronal damage induced by glutamate and ischemia in the rat retina. Brain Res. 958(1), 10-19 (2002).
82. Osborne NN, Cazevieille C, Carvalho AL, Larsen AK, DeSantis L. In vivo and in vitro experiments show that betaxolol is a retinal neuroprotective agent. Brain Res. 751(1), 113-123 (1997).
83. Wood JP, Schmidt KG, Melena J, Chidlow G, Allmeier H, Osborne NN. The beta-adrenoceptor antagonists metipranolol and timolol are retinal neuroprotectants: comparison with betaxolol. Exp. Eye Res. 76(4), 505-516 (2003).
84. Wood JP, DeSantis L, Chao HM, Osborne NN. Topically applied betaxolol attenuates ischaemia-induced effects to the rat retina and stimulates BDNF mRNA. Exp. Eye Res. 72(1), 79-86 (2001).
85. Goyagi T, Nishikawa T, Tobe Y. Neuroprotective effects and suppression of ischemia-induced glutamate elevation by beta1-adrenoreceptor antagonists administered before transient focal ischemia in rats. J. Neurosurg. Anesthesiol. 23(2), 131-137 (2011).
86. Junker V, Becker A, Huhne R et al. Stimulation of beta-adrenoceptors activates astrocytes and provides neuroprotection. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 446(1-3), 25-36 (2002).
87. Denis P, Elena PP. [Retinal vascular beta-adrenergic receptors in man]. Ophtalmologie 3(1), 62-64 (1989).
88. Ferrari-Dileo G. Beta 1 and beta 2 adrenergic binding sites in bovine retina and retinal blood vessels. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 29(5), 695-699 (1988).
89. Elena PP, Kosina-Boix M, Moulin G, Lapalus P. Autoradiographic localization of beta-adrenergic receptors in rabbit eye. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 28(8), 1436-1441 (1987).
90. Tamaki Y, Araie M, Tomita K, Nagahara M. Effect of topical betaxolol on tissue circulation in the human optic nerve head. J. Ocul. Pharmacol. Ther. 15(4), 313-321 (1999).
91. Qian L, Wu HM, Chen SH et al. Beta2-adrenergic receptor activation prevents rodent dopaminergic neurotoxicity by inhibiting microglia via a novel signaling pathway. J. Immunol. 186(7), 4443-4454 (2011).
92. Gleeson LC, Ryan KJ, Griffin EW, Connor TJ, Harkin A. The beta2-adrenoceptor agonist clenbuterol elicits neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory and neurotrophic actions in the kainic acid model of excitotoxicity. Brain Behav. Immun. 24(8), 1354-1361 (2010).
93. Aihara M, Lindsey JD, Weinreb RN. Reduction of intraocular pressure in mouse eyes treated with latanoprost. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 43(1), 146-150 (2002).
94. Smid SD. Role of prostaglandins and specific place in therapy of bimatoprost in the treatment of elevated intraocular pressure and ocular hypertension: a closer look at the agonist properties of bimatoprost and the prostamides. Clin. Ophthalmol. 3, 663-670 (2009).
95. Kanamori A, Naka M, Fukuda M, Nakamura M, Negi A. Latanoprost protects rat retinal ganglion cells from apoptosis in vitro and in vivo. Exp. Eye Res. 88(3), 535-541 (2009).
96. Drago F, Valzelli S, Emmi I, Marino A, Scalia CC, Marino V. Latanoprost exerts neuroprotective activity in vitro and in vivo. Exp. Eye Res. 72(4), 479-486 (2001).
97. Yamagishi R, Aihara M, Araie M. Neuroprotective effects of prostaglandin analogues on retinal ganglion cell death independent of intraocular pressure reduction. Exp. Eye Res. 93(3), 265-270 (2011).
98. Zheng J, Feng X, Hou L et al. Latanoprost promotes neurite outgrowth in differentiated RGC-5 cells via the PI3K-Akt-mTOR signaling pathway. Cell. Mol. Neurobiol. 31(4), 597-604 (2011).
99. Nakanishi Y, Nakamura M, Mukuno H, Kanamori A, Seigel GM, Negi A. Latanoprost rescues retinal neuro-glial cells from apoptosis by inhibiting caspase-3, which is mediated by p44/p42 mitogen-activated protein kinase. Exp. Eye Res. 83(5), 1108-1117 (2006).
100. Boltz A, Schmidl D, Weigert G et al. Effect of latanoprost on choroidal blood flow regulation in healthy subjects. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 52(7), 4410-4415 (2011).
101. Kurashima H, Watabe H, Sato N, Abe S, Ishida N, Yoshitomi T. Effects of prostaglandin F(2alpha) analogues on endothelin-1-induced impairment of rabbit ocular blood flow: comparison among tafluprost, travoprost, and latanoprost. Exp. Eye Res. 91(6), 853-859 (2010).
102. Sugrue MF. Pharmacological and ocular hypotensive properties of topical carbonic anhydrase inhibitors. Prog. Retin. Eye Res. 19(1), 87-112 (2000).
103. +, Cl-, and HCO-3 from plasma to posterior chamber: effect of acetazolamide and relation to the treatment of glaucoma. Invest. Ophthalmol. 15(5), 356-364 (1976).
104. Musser GL, Rosen S. Localization of carbonic anhydrase activity in the vertebrate retina. Exp. Eye Res. 15(1), 105-119 (1973).
105. Maren TH, Jankowska L, Sanyal G, Edelhauser HF. The transcorneal permeability of sulfonamide carbonic anhydrase inhibitors and their effect on aqueous humor secretion. Exp. Eye Res. 36(4), 457-479 (1983).
106. Kniep EM, Roehlecke C, Ozkucur N et al. Inhibition of apoptosis and reduction of intracellular pH decrease in retinal neural cell cultures by a blocker of carbonic anhydrase. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 47(3), 1185-1192 (2006).
107. Okazawa H, Yamauchi H, Sugimoto K, Toyoda H, Kishibe Y, Takahashi M. Effects of acetazolamide on cerebral blood flow, blood volume, and oxygen metabolism: a positron emission tomography study with healthy volunteers. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 21(12), 1472-1479 (2001).
108. Reitsamer HA, Bogner B, Tockner B, Kiel JW. Effects of dorzolamide on choroidal blood flow, ciliary blood flow, and aqueous production in rabbits. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 50(5), 2301-2307 (2009).
109. Torring MS, Holmgaard K, Hessellund A, Aalkjaer C, Bek T. The vasodilating effect of acetazolamide and dorzolamide involves mechanisms other than carbonic anhydrase inhibition. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 50(1), 345-351 (2009).
110. Pedersen DB, Koch Jensen P, la Cour M et al. Carbonic anhydrase inhibition increases retinal oxygen tension and dilates retinal vessels. Graefes Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol. 243(2), 163-168 (2005).
111. Laux BE, Raichle ME. The effect of acetazolamide on cerebral blood flow and oxygen utilization in the rhesus monkey. J. Clin. Invest. 62(3), 585-592 (1978).
112. Martinez A, Sanchez-Salorio M. A comparison of the long-term effects of dorzolamide 2% and brinzolamide 1%, each added to timolol 0.5%, on retrobulbar hemodynamics and intraocular pressure in open-angle glaucoma patients. J. Ocul. Pharmacol. Ther. 25(3), 239-248 (2009).
113. Ridderstrale Y, Wistrand PJ. Membrane-associated carbonic anhydrase activity in the brain of CA II-deficient mice. J. Neurocytol. 29(4), 263-269 (2000).
114. Sanchez-Pulgarin M, Martinez-de-la-Casa JM, Garcia-Feijoo J et al. [Comparative study of the pressure lowering efficacy and variations in the ocular pulse amplitude between fixed combinations of dorzolamide/timolol and brinzolamide/ timolol.] Arch. Soc. Esp. Oftalmol. 86(5), 149-153 (2011).
115. Harris A, Arend O, Kagemann L, Garrett M, Chung HS, Martin B. Dorzolamide, visual function and ocular hemodynamics in normal-tension glaucoma. J. Ocul. Pharmacol. Ther. 15(3), 189-197 (1999).
116. Pillunat LE, Bohm AG, Koller AU, Schmidt KG, Klemm M, Richard G. Effect of topical dorzolamide on optic nerve head blood flow. Graefes Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol. 237(6), 495-500 (1999).
117. Hare WA, WoldeMussie E, Weinreb RN et al. Efficacy and safety of memantine treatment for reduction of changes associated with experimental glaucoma in monkey, II: structural measures. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 45(8), 2640-2651 (2004).
118. Vorwerk CK, Gorla MS, Dreyer EB. An experimental basis for implicating excitotoxicity in glaucomatous optic neuropathy. Surv. Ophthalmol. 43(Suppl. 1), S142-S150 (1999).
119. Kemp JA, McKernan RM. NMDA receptor pathways as drug targets. Nat. Neurosci. 5(Suppl.), 1039-1042 (2002).
120. Choi DW. Glutamate neurotoxicity and diseases of the nervous system. Neuron 1(8), 623-634 (1988).
121. 2+: toxicity is blocked by the N-methyl-d-aspartate antagonist MK-801. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 85(17), 6556-6560 (1988).
122. Sucher NJ, Aizenman E, Lipton SA. N-methyl-d-aspartate antagonists prevent kainate neurotoxicity in rat retinal ganglion cells in vitro. J. Neurosci. 11(4), 966-971 (1991).
123. Lipton SA. The molecular basis of memantine action in Alzheimer's disease and other neurologic disorders: low-affinity, uncompetitive antagonism. Curr. Alzheimer Res. 2(2), 155-165 (2005).
124. Krupin T, Liebmann JM, Greenfield DS, Ritch R, Gardiner S. A randomized trial of brimonidine versus timolol in preserving visual function: results from the Low- Pressure Glaucoma Treatment Study. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 151(4), 671-681 (2011).
125. Culmsee C, Junker V, Kremers W, Thal S, Plesnila N, Krieglstein J. Combination therapy in ischemic stroke: synergistic neuroprotective effects of memantine and clenbuterol. Stroke 35(5), 1197-1202 (2004).