Developmental rate: A unifying mechanism for sympatric divergence in postglacial fishes?

Current Zoology

Volumn 58, Issue 1, 2012, Pages 21-34

  McPhee, Megan V ^a   Noakes, David L G ^b   Allendorf, Fred W ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ALASKA FAIRBANKS   (United States)

^b OREGON STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF MONTANA   (United States)

Author keywords

Pleiotropy; Resource polymorphism; Selection recombination antagonism

Indexed keywords

PISCES;

EID: 84856008061     PISSN: 16745507     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/czoolo/58.1.21     Document Type: Article

References (138)

1. Adams CE, Huntingford FA, 2002. The functional significance of inherited differences in feeding morphology in a sympatric polymorphic population of Arctic charr. Evolutionary Ecology 16: 15-25.
2. Adams CE, Huntingford FA, 2004. Incipient speciation driven by phenotypic plasticity? Evidence from sympatric populations of Arctic charr. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 81: 611-618.
3. Adams CE, Woltering C, Alexander G, 2003. Epigenetic regulation of trophic morphology through feeding behaviour in Arctic charr Salvelinus alpinus. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 78: 43-49.
4. Alexander GD, Adams CE, 2004. Exposure to a common environment erodes inherited between-population trophic morphology differences in Arctic charr. Journal of Fish Biology. 64: 253-257.
5. Alfonso NR, 2004. Evidence for two morphotypes of lake charr Salvelinus namaycush from Great Bear Lake, Northwest Territories, Canada. Environmental Biology of Fishes 71: 21-32.
6. Allendorf FW, Knudsen KL, Leary RF, 1983. Adaptive significance of differences in the tissue-specific expression of a phosphoglucomutase gene in rainbow trout. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 80: 1397-1400.
7. Álvarez D, Cano JM, Nicieza AG, 2006. Microgeographic variation in metabolic rate and energy storage of brown trout: Countergradient selection or thermal sensitivity? Evolutionary Ecology 20: 345-363.
8. Arendt JD, Wilson DS, 2000. Population differences in the onset of cranial ossification in pumpkinseed Lepomis gibbosus, a potential cost of rapid growth. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 57: 351-356.
9. Arnold SJ, Bürger R, Hohenlohe PA, Ajie BC, Jones AG, 2008. Understanding the evolution and stability of the G-matrix. Evolution 62: 2451-2461.
10. Barlow GW, 1961. Causes and significance of morphological variation in fishes. Systematic Zoology 10: 105-117.
11. Barrett RDH, Rogers SM, Schluter D, 2009. Environment specific pleiotropy facilitates divergence at the ectodysplasin locus in threespine stickleback. Evolution 63: 2831-2837.
12. Barrette M-F, Daigle G, Dodson JJ, 2009. Intraspecific vicariant history and the evolution of adaptive morphological diversity in a fish species Osmerus mordax. Biological Journal of the Linnaean Society 97: 140-151.
13. Beacham TD, 1990. A genetic analysis of meristic and morphometric variation in chum salmon Oncorhynchus keta at three different temperatures. Canadian Journal of Zoology 68: 225-229.
14. Beacham TD, Murray CB, 1988. Influence of photoperiod and temperature on timing of sexual maturity of pink salmon Oncorhynchus gorbuscha. Canadian Journal of Zoology 66: 1729-1732.
15. Behnke RJ, 1972. The systematics of salmonid fishes of recently glaciated lakes. Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 29: 639-671.
16. Benhaïm D, Skúlason S, Hansen BR, 2003. Behavioural variation in juvenile Arctic charr in relation to body size. Journal of Fish Biology 62: 1326-1338.
17. Bernatchez L, Dodson JJ, 1990. Allopatric origin of sympatric populations of lake whitefish Coregonus clupeaformis as revealed by mitochondrial-DNA restriction analysis. Evolution 44: 1263-1271.
18. Bernatchez L, Chouinard A, Lu G, 1999. Integrating molecular genetics and ecology in studies of adaptive radiation: Whitefish Coregonus sp., as a case study. Biological Journal of the Linnaean Society 68: 173-194.
19. Bernatchez L, Renaut S, Whitely AR, Derome N, Nolte AW et al., 2010. On the origin of species: Insights from the ecological genomics of lake whitefish. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B. 365: 1783-1800.
20. Biro PA, Ridgway MS, 2008. Repeatability of foraging tactics in young brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis. Canadian Field Naturalist. 122: 40-44.
21. Blackie CT, Weese DJ, Noakes DLG, 2003. Evidence for resource polymorphism in the lake charr Salvelinus namaycush population of Great Bear Lake, Northwest Territories, Canada. Ecoscience 10: 509-514.
22. Bolnick DI, Fitzpatrick BM, 2007. Sympatric speciation: Models and empirical evidence. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 38: 459-487.
23. Carlson SM, Seamons TR, 2008. A review of quantitative genetic components of fitness in salmonids: Implications for adaptation to future change. Evolutionary Applications 1: 222-238.
24. Coyne JA, Orr HA, 2004. Speciation. Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates, Inc.
25. Danzmann RG, Ferguson MM, Skúlason S, Snorrason SS, Noakes DLG, 1991. Mitochondrial DNA diversity among four sympatric morphs of Arctic charr, Salvelinus alpinus L., from Thingvallavatn, Iceland. Journal of Fish Biology 39: 649-659.
26. Derome N, Duchesne P, Bernatchez L, 2006. Parallelism in gene transcription among sympatric lake whitefish (Coregonus clupeaformis Mitchill) ecotypes. Molecular Ecology 15: 1239-1249.
27. Dobzhansky T, 1951. Genetics and the origin of species. New York: Columbia University Press.
28. Easton AA, Moghadam HK, Danzmann RG, Ferguson MM, 2011. The genetic architecture of embryonic developmental rate and genetic covariation with age at maturation in rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss. Journal of Fish Biology 78: 602-623.
29. Einum S, Fleming IA, 2000a. Highly fecund mothers sacrifice offspring survival to maximize fitness. Nature 405: 565-567.
30. Einum S, Fleming IA, 2000b. Selection against late emergence and small offspring in Atlantic salmon Salmo salar. Evolution 54: 628-639.
31. Eiríksson GM, Skúlason S, Snorrason SS, 1999. Heterochrony in skeletal development and body size in progeny of two morphs of Arctic charr from Thingvallavatn, Iceland. Journal of Fish Biology 55: 175-185.
32. Feder JL, Nosil P, 2010. The efficacy of divergence hitchhiking in generating genomic islands during ecological speciation. Evolution 64: 1729-1747.
33. Felsenstein J, 1981. Skepticism towards Santa Rosalia, or why are there so few kinds of animals? Evolution 35: 124-138.
34. Fitzpatrick BM, Fordyce JA, Gavrilets S, 2008. What, if anything, is sympatric speciation? Journal of Evolutionary Biology 21: 1452-1459.
35. Fleming IA, Gross MR, 1989. Evolution of adult female life history and morphology in a Pacific salmon (coho: Oncorhynchus kisutch). Evolution 43: 141-157.
36. Foote CJ, Moore K, Stenberg K, Craig KJ, Wenburg JK et al., 1999. Genetic differentiation in gill raker number and length in sympatric anadromous and nonanadromous morphs of sockeye salmon Oncorhynchus nerka. Environmental Biology of Fishes 54: 263-274.
37. Frost WE, 1965. Breeding habits of Windermere charr Salvelinus willughbii (Gunther), and their bearing on speciation of these fish. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B. 163: 232-284.
38. Gavrilets S, 2004. Fitness landscapes and the origin of species. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
39. Gavrilets S, 2005. Adaptive speciation: It is not that easy: a reply to Doebli et al. Evolution 59: 696-699.
40. Gíslason D, Ferguson MM, Skúlason S, Snorrason SS, 1999. Rapid and coupled phenotypic and genetic divergence in Icelandic Arctic char Salvelinus alpinus. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 56: 2229-2234.
41. Goetz F, Rosauer D, Sitar S, Goetz G, Simchik C et al., 2010. A genetic basis for the phenotypic differentiation between siscowet and lean lake trout Salvelinus namaycush. Molecular Ecology 19: 176-196.
42. Gould SJ, 1966. Allometry and size in ontogeny and phylogeny. Biological Reviews 41: 587-640.
43. Gould SJ, 1977. Ontogeny and phylogeny. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press.
44. Hard JJ, Berejikian BA, Tezak EP, Schroder SL, Knudsen CM et al., 2000. Evidence for morphometric differentiation of wild and captively reared adult coho salmon: a geometric analysis. Environmental Biology of Fishes. 58: 61-73.
45. Hatfield T, Schluter D, 1999. Ecological speciation in sticklebacks: Environment-dependent hybrid fitness. Evolution 53: 866-873.
46. Helland IP, Vøllestad LA, Freyhof J, Mehner T, 2009. Morphological differences between two ecologically similar sympatric fishes. Journal of Fish Biology 75: 2756-2767.
47. Helle JH, 1981. Significance of the stock concept in artificial propagation of salmonids in Alaska. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 38: 1665-1671.
48. Hindar K, Jonsson B, 1993. Ecological polymorphism in Arctic charr. Biological Journal of the Linnaean Society 48: 63-74.
49. Hubbs CL, 1926. The structural consequences of modifications of the developmental rate in fishes, considered in reference to certain problems of evolution. American Naturalist 60: 57-81.
50. Hynes JD, Brown EH, Helle JH, Ryman N, Webster DA, 1981. Guidelines for the culture of fish stocks for resource management. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 38: 1867-1876.
51. Johnston IA, 2006. Environment and plasticity of myogenesis in teleost fish. Journal of Experimental Biology 209: 2249-2264.
52. Johnston IA, Abercromby M, Vieira VLA, Sigurjonsdóttir H, Kristjánsson BK et al., 2004. Rapid evolution of muscle fibre number in post-glacial populations of Arctic charr Salvelinus alpinus. Journal of Experimental Biology 207: 4343-4360.
53. Jonsson B, Jonsson N, 2001. Polymorphism and speciation in Arctic charr. Journal of Fish Biology 58: 605-638.
54. Jonsson B, Jonsson N, 2009. A review of the likely effects of climate change on anadromous Atlantic salmon Salmo salar and brown trout Salmo trutta, with particular reference to water temperature and flow. Journal of Fish Biology 75: 2381-2447.
55. Kahilainen K, Østbye K, 2006. Morphological differentiation and resource polymorphism in three sympatric whitefish Coregonus lavaretus (L.) forms in a subarctic lake. Journal of Fish Biology 68: 63-79.
56. Kahilainen KK, Siwertsson A, Gjelland GØ, Knudsen R, Bøhn T et al., 2011. The role of gill raker number variability in adaptive radiation of coregonid fish. Evolutionary Ecology 25: 573-588.
57. Kapralova KH, Morrissey MB, Kristjánsson BK, Ólafsdóttir GA, Snorrason SS et al., 2011. Evolution of adaptive diversity and genetic connectivity in Arctic charr Salvelinus alpinus in Iceland. Heredity 106: 472-487.
58. Kause A, Ritola O, Paananen T, Eskelinen U, Mäntysaari E, 2003. Big and beautiful? Quantitative genetic parameters for appearance of large rainbow trout. Journal of Fish Biology 62: 610-622.
59. Klemetsen A, 2010. The charr problem revisited: Exceptional phenotypic plasticity promotes ecological speciation in postglacial lakes. Freshwater Reviews 3: 49-74.
60. Klemetsen A, Elliott JM, Knudsen R, Sorensen P, 2002. Evidence for genetic differences in the offspring of two sympatric morphs of Arctic charr. Journal of Fish Biology 60: 933-950.
61. Knudsen R, Klemetsen A, Amundsen P-A, Hermansen B, 2006. Incipient speciation through niche expansion: An example from the Arctic charr in a subarctic lake. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B. 273: 2291-2298.
62. Lauzeral C, Leprieur F, Beauchard O, Duron Q, Overdorff T et al., 2011. Identifying climatic niche shifts using coarse-grained occurrence data: A test with non-native freshwater fish. Global Ecology and Biogeography 20: 407-414.
63. Leary RF, Allendorf FW, Knudsen KL, 1984. Major morphological effects of a regulatory gene: Pgm1-t in rainbow trout. Molecular Biology and Evolution 1: 183-194.
64. LeBlanc CA-L, 2011. The importance of egg size for the diversity of salmonids. Department of Fisheries and Wildlife. PhD Thesis, Oregon State University, USA.
65. LeBlanc CA-L, Benhaïm D, Hansen BR, Kristjánsson BK, Skúlason S, 2011. The importance of egg size and social effects for behaviour of Arctic charr juveniles. Ethology 117: 664-674.
66. Lindsey CC, Arnason AN, 1981. A model for responses of vertebral numbers in fish to environmental influences during development. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 38: 334-347.
67. Lu G, Bernatchez L, 1999. Correlated trophic specialization and genetic divergence in sympatric lake whitefish ecotypes Coregonus clupeaformis: Support for the ecological speciation hypothesis. Evolution 53: 1491-1505.
68. Mallet J, Meyer A, Nosil P, Feder JL, 2009. Space, sympatry and speciation. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 22: 2332-2341.
69. Martell DJ, Kieffer JD, Trippel EA, 2006. Effects of the embryonic thermal environment on haddock Melanogrammus aeglefinus developmental trajectories through exogenous feeding stages. Marine Biology 149: 177-187.
70. Matsuo T, Sugaya S, Yasukawa J, Aigaki T, Fuyama Y, 2007. Odorant-binding proteins OBP57d and OBP57e affect taste perception and host-plant preference in Drosophila sechellia. PLoS Biology. 5: e118.
71. Mayr E, 1963. Animal species and evolution. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press.
72. McCart P, Andersen B, 1967. Plasticity of gill raker number and length in Oncorhynchus nerka. Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 24: 1999-2002.
73. McCarthy ID, Sánchez JA, Blanco G, 2003. Allozyme heterozygosity, date of first feeding and life history strategy in Atlantic salmon. Journal of Fish Biology 62: 341-357.
74. McDowall RM, 2008. Jordan's and other ecogeographical rules, and the vertebral number in fishes. Journal of Biogeography 35: 501-508.
75. McLaughlin RL, Ferguson MM, Noakes DLG, 1999. Adaptive peaks and alternative foraging strategies in brook charr: Evidence of short-term divergent selection for sitting-and-waiting and actively searching. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 45: 386-395.
76. McPhail JD, 1993. Ecology and evolution of sympatric sticklebacks Gasterosteus: Origin of the species pairs. Canadian Journal of Zoology 71: 515-523.
77. Metcalfe NB, 1998. The interaction between behavior and physiology in determining life history patterns in Atlantic salmon Salmo salar. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 55: 93-103.
78. Morinville GR, Rasmussen JB, 2003. Early juvenile bioenergetic differences between anadromous and resident brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 60: 401-410.
79. Nichols KM, Edo AF, Wheeler PA, Thorgaard GH, 2008. The genetic basis of smoltification-related traits in Oncorhynchus mykiss. Genetics 179: 1559-1575.
80. Noakes DLG, 2008. Charr truth: Sympatric differentiation in Salvelinus species. Environmental Biology of Fishes 83: 7-15.
81. Nosil P, Schluter D, 2011. The genes underlying the process of speciation. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 26: 160-167.
82. Ohlberger J, Mehner T, Staaks G, Hølker F, 2008. Temperature- related physiological adaptations promote ecological divergence in a sympatric species pair of temperate freshwater fish Coregonus spp. Functional Ecology 22: 501-508.
83. Østbye K, Amundsen P-A, Bernatchez L, Klemetsen A, Knudsen R et al., 2006. Parallel evolution of ecomorphological traits in the European whitefish Coregonus lavaretus (L.) species complex during postglacial times. Molecular Ecology 15: 3983-4001.
84. Palkovacs EP, Dion KB, Post DM, Caccone A, 2008. Independent evolutionary origins of landlocked alewife populations and rapid parallel evolution of phenotypic types. Molecular Ecology. 17:582-597.
85. Parsons KJ, Skúlason S, Ferguson M, 2010. Morphological variation over ontogeny and environments in resource polymorphic arctic charr Salvelinus alpinus. Evolution & Development 12: 246-257.
86. Pavey SA, Collin H, Nosil P, Rogers SM, 2010. The role of gene expression in ecological speciation. Annals of the New York Academy of Science 1206: 110-129.
87. Peichel CL, Nereng KS, Ohgi KA, Cole BLE, Colosimo PF et al., 2001. The genetic architecture of divergence between threespine stickleback species. Nature 414: 901-905.
88. Poole GC, Berman CH, 2001. An ecological perspective on in-stream temperature: Natural heat dynamics and mechanisms of human-caused thermal degradation. Environmental Management 27: 787-802.
89. Quinn TP, Unwin MJ, Kinnison MT, 2000. Evolution of temporal isolation in the wild: Genetic divergence in timing of migration and breeding by introduced chinook salmon populations. Evolution 54: 1372-1385.
90. Roberge C, Einum S, Guderley H, Bernatchez L, 2006. Rapid parallel evolutionary changes of gene transcription profiles in farmed Atlantic salmon. Molecular Ecology 15: 9-20.
91. Robinson BW, Parsons KJ, 2002. Changing times, spaces, and faces: Tests and implications of adaptive morphological plasticity in the fishes of northern postglacial lakes. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 59: 1819-1833.
92. Robinson BW, Wilson DS, 1994. Character release and displacement in fishes: A neglected literature. American Naturalist 144: 596-627.
93. Rogers SM, Bernatchez L, 2005. Integrating QTL mapping and genome scans towards the characterization of candidate loci under parallel selection in the lake whitefish Coregonus clupeaformis. Molecular Ecology 14: 351-361.
94. Rungruangsak-Torrissen K, Pringle GM, Moss R, Houlihan DF, 1998. Effects of varying rearing temperatures on expression of different trypsin isozymes, feed conversion efficiency and growth in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.). Fish Physiology and Biochemistry 19: 247-255.
95. Sacotte S, Magnan P, 2006. Inherited differences in foraging behaviour in the offspring of two forms of lacustrine brook charr. Evolutionary Ecology Research 8: 843-857.
96. Saemundsson K, 1992. Geology of the Thingvallavatn area. Oikos 64: 40-68.
97. Sandlund OT, Gunnarsson K, Jónasson PM, Jonsson B, Lindem T et al., 1992. The Arctic charr Salvelinus alpinus in Thingvallavatn. Oikos 64: 305-351.
98. Sauvage C, Derôme N, Normandeau E, St-Cyr J, Audet C, Bernatchez L, 2010. Fast transcriptional responses to domestication in the brook charr Salvelinus fontinalis. Genetics 185: 105-112.
99. Schluter D, 1996. Adaptive radiation along genetic lines of least resistance. Evolution 50: 1766-1774.
100. Schluter D, 2000. The ecology of adaptive radiation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
101. Schluter D, McPhail JD, 1993. Character displacement and replicate adaptive radiation. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 8: 197-200.
102. Schulz M, Freyhof J, Saint-Laurent R, Østbye K, Mehner T et al., 2006. Evidence for independent origin of two spring-spawning ciscoes (Salmoniformes: Coregonidae) in Germany. Journal of Fish Biology 68: A119-A135.
103. Servedio MR, Van Doorn GS, Kopp M, Frame AM, Nosil P, 2011. Magic traits in speciation: 'Magic' but not rare? Trends in Ecology and Evolution 26: 389-397.
104. Sibthorpe D, Sturlaugsdóttir R, Kristjánsson BK, Thorarensen H, Skúlason S et al., 2006. Characterization and expression of the paired box protein 7 (Pax7) gene in polymorphic Arctic charr Salvelinus alpinus. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology B. 145: 371-383.
105. Sigursteinsdóttir RJ, Kristjánsson BK, 2005. Parallel evolution, not always so parallel: Comparison of small benthic charr Salvelinus alpinus, from Grimsnes and Thingvallavatn, Iceland. Environmental Biology of Fishes 74: 239-244.
106. Singer MC, McBride CS, 2010. Multitrait, host-associated divergence among sets of butterfly populations: Implications for reproductive isolation and ecological speciation. Evolution 64: 921-933.
107. Skúlason S, Smith TB, 1995. Resource polymorphisms in vertebrates. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 10: 366-370.
108. Skúlason S, Snorrason SS, Noakes DLG, Ferguson MM, Malmquist HJ, 1989a. Segregation in spawning and early life history among polymorphic Arctic charr Salvelinus alpinus in Thingvallavatn, Iceland. Journal of Fish Biology. 35: s225-s232.
109. Skúlason S, Noakes DLG, Snorrason SS, 1989b. Ontogeny of trophic morphology in four sympatric morphs of arctic charr Salvelinus alpinus in Thingvallavatn, Iceland. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 38: 281-301.
110. Skúlason S, Snorrason SS, Jonsson B, 1999. Sympatric morphs, populations and speciation in freshwater fish with emphasis on arctic charr. In: Magurran AE, May RB ed. Evolution of Biological Diversity. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 70-92.
111. Smadja C, Galindo J, Butlin R, 2008. Hitching a lift on the road to speciation. Molecular Ecology 17: 4177-4180.
112. Smith GR, Todd TN, 1984. Evolution of species flocks of fishes in north temperate lakes. In: Echelle AA, Kornfield I ed. Evolution of fish species flocks. Orono, Maine: Orono Press, 45-68.
113. Smith TB, Skúlason S, 1996. Evolutionary significance of resource polymorphisms in fishes, amphibians, and birds. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 27: 111-133.
114. Smoker WW, Gharrett AJ, Stekoll MS, 1998. Genetic variation of return date in a population of pink salmon: A consequence of fluctuating environment and dispersive selection? Alaska Fishery Research Bulletin 5: 46-54.
115. Snorrason SS, Skúlason S, Jonsson B, Malmquist HJ, Jonasson PM et al., 1994. Trophic specialization in Arctic charr Salvelinus alpinus (Pisces; Salmonidae): Morphological divergence and ontogenetic niche shifts. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 52: 1-18.
116. Solem Ø, Berg OK, Kjøsnes AJ, 2006. Inter- and intra- population morphological differences between wild and farmed Atlantic salmon juveniles. Journal of Fish Biology 69: 1466-1481.
117. St-Cyr J, Derome N, Bernatchez L, 2008. The transcriptomics of life-history trade-offs in whitefish species pairs (Coregonus sp.). Molecular Ecology 17: 1850-1870.
118. Su G-S, Liljedahl L-E, Gall GAE, 1997. Genetic and environmental variation of female reproductive traits in rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss. Aquaculture 154: 115-124.
119. Swain DP, Foote CJ, 1999. Stocks and chameleons: The use of phenotypic variation in stock identification. Fisheries Research 43: 113-128.
120. Swain DP, Lindsey CC, 1986. Meristic variation in a clone of the cyprinodont fish Rivulus marmoratus related to temperature history of the parents and of the embryos. Canadian Journal of Zoology 64: 1444-1455.
121. Swain DP, Riddell BE, Murray CB. 1991. Morphological differences between hatchery and wild populations of coho salmon Oncorhynchus kisutch: Environmental versus genetic origin. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 48: 1783-1791.
122. Taylor EB, 1986. Differences in morphology between wild and hatchery populations of juvenile coho salmon. The Progressive Fish-Culturalist 48: 171-176.
123. Taylor EB, 1999. Species pairs of north temperate freshwater fishes: Evolution, taxonomy, and conservation. Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 9: 299-324.
124. Taylor EB, Bentzen P, 1993. Evidence for multiple origins and sympatric divergence of trophic ecotypes of smelt Osmerus in northeastern North America. Evolution 47: 813-832.
125. Thorpe JE, 2007. Maturation responses of salmonids to changing developmental opportunities. Marine Ecology Progress Series 335: 285-288.
126. Tiffan KF, Connor WP, 2011. Distinguishing between natural and hatchery Snake River fall Chinook salmon subyearlings in the field using body morphology. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 140: 21-30.
127. Trudel M, Tremblay A, Schetagne R, Rasmussen JB, 2001. Why are dwarf fish so small? An energetic analysis of polymorphism in lake whitefish Coregonus clupeaformis. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 58: 394-405.
128. Valdimarsson SK, Skúlason S, Snorrason SS, 2002. The relationship between egg size and the rate of early development in Arctic charr Salvelinus alpinus. Environmental Biology of Fishes 65: 463-468.
129. Via S, 2009. Natural selection in action during speciation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106: 9939-9946.
130. Via S, West J, 2008. The genetic mosaic suggests a new role for hitchhiking in ecological speciation. Molecular Ecology 17: 4334-4345.
131. Wessel ML, Smoker WW, Joyce JE, 2006. Variation of morphology among juvenile chinook salmon of hatchery, hybrid, and wild origin. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 135: 333-340.
132. Willacker JJ, von Hippel FA, Wilton PR, Walton KM, 2010. Classification of threespine stickleback along the benthic-limnetic axis. Biological Journal of the Linnaean Society 101: 595-608.
133. Wood CC, Foote CJ, 1996. Evidence for sympatric genetic divergence of anadromous and non-anadromous sockeye salmon Oncorhynchus nerka. Evolution 50: 1265-1279.
134. Yamahira K, Nishida T, 2009. Latitudinal variation in axial patterning of the medaka (Actinopterygii: Adrainichthyidae): Jordan's rule is substantiated by genetic variation in abdominal vertebral number. Biological Journal of the Linnaean Society 96: 856-866.
135. Yamamoto S, Sota T, 2009. Incipient allochronic speciation by climatic disruption of the reproductive period. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B. 276: 2711-2719.
136. Yurtseva A, Lajus D, Artamonova V, Makhrov A, 2010. Effect of hatchery environment on cranial morphology and developmental stability of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) from north-west Russia. Journal of Applied Ichthyology 26: 307-314.
137. Zimmerman MS, Krueger CC, Eshenroder RL, 2006. Phenotypic diversity of lake trout in Great Slave Lake: Differences in morphology, buoyancy, and habitat depth. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 135: 1056-1067.
138. Zimmerman MS, Krueger CC, Eshenroder RL, 2007. Morphological and ecological differences between shallow- and deepwater lake trout in Lake Mistassini, Quebec. Journal of Great Lakes Research 33: 156-169.