Iontophoretic drug delivery: History and applications

Journal of Applied Pharmaceutical Science

Volumn 1, Issue 3, 2011, Pages 11-24

  Khan, Azad ^a   Yasir, Mohd ^a   Asif, Mohd ^a   Chauhan, Iti ^a   Singh, Alok P ^a   Sharma, Rajat ^a   Singh, Pradeep ^a   Rai, Shubham ^a  

^a ITS Paramedical College (Pharmacy)   (India)

Author keywords

Iontophoresis; Penetration; Skin; Topical drug delivery; Transdermal drug delivery etc

Indexed keywords

EID: 84855589835     PISSN: None     EISSN: 22313354     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (123)

1. A. Pannatier, P. Jenner, B. Testa, J.C. Etter, The skin as a drug metabolizing organ, Drug. Metab. Rev. 1978; 8: 319-343.
2. A.C. Hill, G.F. Baker, G.T. Jansen, Mechanism of action of iontophoresis in the treatment of palmar hyperhidrosis. Cutis 1981; 28: 69-70.
3. A.C. Williams, B.W. Barry, Skin absorption enhancers, Crit. Rev. Ther. Drug. Carrier Syst.,1992; 9: 305-353.
4. A.C. Williams, B.W. Barry, Terpenes and the lipid-protein partitioning theory of skin penetration enhancement. Pharm. Res.,1991; 8: 17-24.
5. A.K. Nugroho, G. Li, A. Grossklaus, M. Danhof, J.A. Bouwstra, Transdermal iontophoresis of rotigotine: influence of concentration, temperature and current density in human skin in vitro. J. Control Release 2004; 96(1): 159-167.
6. Abramowitz D, Neoussikine B. Treatment by Ion Transfer, New York: Grune and Stratton; 1946. p. 87.
7. Badkar, A.V.; Banga, A.K.; Electrically enhanced transdermal delivery of a macromolecule.J. Pharm. Pharmaco. 2002; 54(7): 907-12.
8. Bagniefski, T.; Burnett, R.R. A comparison of pulsed and continuous current iontophoresis.J. Control. Release 1990; 11(1-3): 113-122.
9. Banga, A.K. Electrically assisted transdermal and topical drug delivery, Taylor and Francis, London, 1998.
10. Banga, A.K.; Chien, Y.W. 52 Iontophoretic delivery of drugs: Fundamentals, developments and biomedical applications. J. Control. Release, 1988; 7(1): 1-24.
11. Bellantone NH, Rim S, Francoeur ML, Rasadi B. Enhanced percutaneous absorption via iontophoresis of an in vitro system and transport of model compounds. Int J Pharm., 1986; 30: 63-72.
12. Berner, B.; Dinh, S.M. Electronically assisted controlled drug delivery, CRC: Washington DC. 1998.
13. Bodde, H.E., Verhoef, J.C., Ponec, M., Transdermal peptide delivery Biochem. Soc. Trans., 1989; 17(5): 943.
14. Bose, S.; Ravis, W.R.; Lin, Y.-J.; Zhang, L.; Hofmann, G.A.; Banga, A.K. Electrically- assisted transdermal delivery of buprenorphine. J. Control. Release 2001; 73(2-3): 197-203.
15. Bumette RR, Ongpipattanakul B. Characterization of the pore transport properties and tissue alteration of excised human skin during iontophoresis. J Pharm Sci., 1988; 77: 132-143.
16. Chang, S.L.; Hofmann, G.A.; Zhang, Lei; Deftor, L. J.; Banga, A.K. The effect of electroporation on iontophoretic transdermal delivery of calcium regulating hormones.J. Control. Release.,2000; 66(2-3): 127-133.
17. Chien, Y.W., Siddiqui, O., Shi, W.M., Lalawong, P., Liu, J.C., Direct current iontophoretic transdermal delivery of peptide and protein drugs J. Pharm. Sci., 1989; 78(5): 376-383.
18. Craane-Van, Heinsberg, W.H.M.; Bax, L.; Flinterman, N.H.M.; Verhoef, J.; Junginger, H.E.; Boddé, H.E.Iontophoresis of a Model Peptide Across Human Skin in Vitro: Effects of Iontophoresis Protocol, pH, and Ionic Strength on Peptide Flux and Skin Impedance. Pharm. Res. 1994; 11(9): 1296-1300.
19. Cross, S.E.; Roberts, M.S. Importance of dermal blood supply and epidermis on the transdermal iontophoretic delivery of monovalent cations. J. Pharm. Sci. 1995; 84(5): 584-592.
20. Curdy, C.; Kalia, Y.N.; Naik, A.; Guy, R.H. Piroxicam delivery into human stratum corneum in vivo: iontophoresis versus passive diffusion. J. Control. Release 2001; 76(1-2): 73-79.
21. Diego M., Yogeshvar N., Begoña Delgado-Charro M and Richard H. G.,Contributions of Electromigration and Electroosmosis to Iontophoretic Drug Delivery. Pharm Res 2001; 18(12): 1701-1708.
22. E.H. Choi, S.H. Lee, S.K. Ahn, S.M. Hwang, The pretreatment effect of chemical skin penetration enhancers in transdermal drug delivery using iontophoresis. Skin Pharmacol. Appl. Skin Physiol. 1999; 12: 326-335.
23. Esther, E.-B.; Raiskup, F.; Stepensky, D.; Domb, A.J. Delivery of gentamicin to the rabbit eye by drug-loaded hydrogel iontophoresis. J. Invest.Opthal. Vis. Sci. 2004; 45: 2543-2548.
24. Fang, J.-Y.; Sung, K.C.; Wang, J.-J.; Chu, C.-C.; Chen, K.-T. The effects of iontophoresis and electroporation on transdermal delivery of buprenorphine from solutions and hydrogels. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 2002; 54(10): 1329-1337.
25. Feldman, R.H.; Maibach, H.I. Regional variation in percutaneous penetration of 14C-cortisol in man. J Invest Dermatol 1967; 48: 181-183.
26. Front Line Strategic Consulting Inc. Alternative Drug Delivery Systems Series: Transdermal Drug Delivery Systems. 2002, Front Line Strategic Consulting Inc.
27. Fu, L.M.; Lee, D.; Carlson, R.; Rao, G.S.; Hui, H.W.; Adjei, L.; Herrin, M.; Sunberg, D.; Hsu, L. Drug Develop. Ind. Pharm. 1993; 19(13): 1557-1571.
28. Gangarosa LP, Park NH, Fong BC, Scott DF, Hill JM. Conductivity of drugs used for iontophoresis. J Pharm Sci 1978; 67: 1439-1443.
29. Green P.G, Flanagan M, Shroot B, Guy RH. In Physical Skin Penetration Enhancement, Walters, K.A.; Hadgraft. J. Eds.; Marcel Dekker Inc.: New York, 1993, 311-33.
30. Green Philip G. Intophoretic delivery of peptide drugs. J. Control. Release., 1996; 41(1-2): 33-48.
31. Green, P.G.; Hinz, R.S.; Cullander, C.; Yamane, G.; Guy, R.H. Iontophoretic Delivery of Amino Acids and Amino Acid Derivatives Across the Skin in Vitro Pharm. Res. 1991; 8(9): 1113-1120.
32. Green, P.G.; Hinz, R.S.; Kim, A.; Cullander, C.; Yamane, G.; Szoka, F.C. Jr.; Guy, R.H. Transdermal iontophoresis of amino acids and peptides in vitro.J. Control. Release 1992; 21(1-3): 187-190.
33. Green, P.G.; Shroot, B.; Bernard, F.; Pilgrim, W.R.; Guy, R.H. 40 In vitro and in vivo iontophoresis of a tripeptide across nude rat skin J. Control. Release 1992; 20(3): 209-17.
34. Guy RH, Hadgraft J. Rate control in trandermal drug delivery . Int. J. Pharm., 1992: 82: R1-6.
35. Helmstädter, A.: The history of electrically-assisted transdermal drug delivery ("iontophoresis"). Pharmazie 2001; 56: 583-587.
36. Hirsch, A.C.; Upasani, R.S.; Banga, A.K. Factorial design approach to evaluate interactions between electrically assisted enhancement and skin stripping for delivery of tacrine . J. Control. Release 2005; 103(1): 113-21.
37. Hui, X.; Anigbogu, A.; Singh, P.; Xiong, G.; Poblet, N.; Liu, P.; Maibach, H.I. Pharmacokinetic and local tissue disposition of [14C] sodium diclofenac following iontophoresis and systemic administration in rabbits. J.Pharm. Sci. 2001; 90(9): 1269-1276.
38. Idson, B., Percutaneous absorption. J. Pharm. Sci., 1975; 64(6): 901-924.
39. Inchley, O.J., The Influence of the electric current on the absorption of drugs. J Pharmacol Exp Ther., 1921; 18(4): 241-256.
40. Ishikawa, O.; Kato, Y.; Onishi, H.; Nagai, T.; Machida, Y. Enhancement of transdermal absorption by switching iontophoresis. Int. J. Pharm. 2002; 249(1-2): 81-88.
41. J.B. Phipps, R.V. Padmanabhan, G.A. Lattin, Iontophoretic delivery of model inorganic and drug ions. J. Pharm. Sci.1989; 78: 365-369.
42. J.Y. Fang, T.L. Hwang, Y.B. Huang, Y.H. Tsai, Transdermal iontophoresis of sodium nonivamide acetate. V. Combined effect of physical enhancement methods. Int. J. Pharm., 2002; 235: 95-105.
43. Jacobsen, J. Buccal iontophoretic delivery of atenolol HCl employing a new in vitro three-chamber permeation cell.J. Control. Release 2001; 70(1-2): 83-95.
44. Johanna, R.; Maija, K.; Katri, H.; Risto, K.; Jouni, H. Delivery and stability of LHRH and Nafarelin in human skin: the effect of constant/pulsed iontophoresis.Eur. J. Pharm. Sci. 2004; 21(2-3): 371-377.
45. Kanikannan, J.N.; Singh, J.; Ramarao, P. In vitro transdermal iontophoretic transport of timolol maleate: effect of age and species. J. Control. Release 2001; 71(1): 99-105.
46. Kanikkannan N. Iontophoresis-based transdermal delivery systems. Bio Drugs. 2002; 16(5): 339-347
47. Kanikkannan, N.; Singh, J.; Ramarao, P. Transdermal iontophoretic delivery of timolol maleate in albino rabbits. Int. J. Pharm. 2000; 197(1-2): 69-76.
48. Knoblauch, P.; Moll, F. In vitro pulsatile and continuous transdermal delivery of buserelin by iontophoresis. J. Control. Release 1993; 26(3): 203-212.
49. Kochhar, C.; Imanidis, G. In vitro Transdermal iontophoretic delivery of leuprolide under constant current application.J. Control. Release 2004; 98(1): 25-35.
50. Koizumi, T.; Kakemi, M.; Katayama, K.; Inada, H.; Sudeji, K.; Kawasaki, M. Transfer of Diclofenac Sodium across Excised Guinea Pig Skin on High-Frequency Pulse Iontophoresis. II. : Factors Affecting Steady-State Transport Rate Chem. Pharm. Bull. 1990; 38(4): 1022-1023.
51. Langer R. Transdermal drug delivery: Past Progress, Current Status, and Future Prospects. Adv. Drug. Del. Rev. 2004; 56: 557-558.
52. Langkjaer, L.; Brange, J.; Grodosky, G.M.; Guy, R.H. Proc. Int. Symp. Control. Rel. Biact. Mater. 1994; 21: 172.
53. Lawler, J.C.; Davis, M.J.; Griffith, E. Electrical Characteristics of the Skin. J. Invest. Dermatol. 1960; 34(5): 301-308.
54. Leboulanger, B.; Fathi, M.; Guy, R.H.; Delgado-Charro, M.B. Reverse iontophoresis as a noninvasive tool for lithium monitoring and pharmacokinetic profiling. Pharm. Res. 2004;21(7): 1214-22.
55. Leboulanger, B.; Guy, R. H.; Delgado-Charro, M.B. Noninvasive monitoring of phenytoin by reverse iotophoresis. Eur. J. Pharm. Sci. 2004; 22(5): 427-433.
56. Lelawongs, P., Liu, J.C., Chien, Y.W., Transdermal iontophoretic delivery (II): Evaluation of electrical and operational factors. Int. J. Pharm., 1990; 61: 179.
57. Lelawongs, P.; Liu, J-C; Siddiqui, O.; Chien, Y. W. Direct current iontophoretic transdermal delivery of peptide and protein drugs. Int. J. Pharm. 1989; 56(1): 13-22.
58. Li, G.L.; Van der Geest, R.; Chanet, L.; Zanten, E. V.; Danhof, M.; Bouwastra, J. A. In vitro iontophoresis of R-apomorphine across human stratum corneum: Structure- transport relationship of penetration enhancement. J. Control. Release 2002; 84(1- 2): 49-57.
59. M. Yamashita, M. Suzuki, H. Hirai, H. Kajigaya, Iontophoretic delivery of calcium for experimental hydrofluoric acid burns, Crit. Care Med. 2001; 29: 1575-1578.
60. M.J. Pikal, S. Shah, Transport mechanisms in iontophoresis. II. Electroosmotic flow and transference number measurements for hairless mouse skin. Pharm. Res. 1990;7: 213-221.
61. M.J. Pikal, S. Shah, Transport mechanisms in iontophoresis. III. An experimental study of the contributions of electroosmotic flow and permeability change in transport of low and high molecular weight solutes, Pharm. Res. 1990; 7: 222-229.
62. M.J. Pikal, Transport mechanisms in iontophoresis. I. A theoretical model for the effect of electroosmotic flow on flux enhancement in transdermal iontophoresis, Pharm. Res. 1990; 7: 118-126.
63. Masada T, Higuchi WI, Srinivasan V, Rohr U, Fox J, Behl C, Pons S. Examination of iontophoretic transport of ionic drugs across skin: baseline studies with the four-electrode system. Int. J. Pharm., 1989; 49: 57-62.
64. Meidan, V. M.; Al-Khalili, M.; Michniak, B. B. Enhanced iontophoretic delivery of buspirone hydrochloride across human skin using chemical enhancers. Int. J. Pharm. 2003; 264(1-2): 73-83.
65. Merclin, N.; Bramer T.; Edsman, K. Iontophoretic delivery of 5- amonolevulinic acid and its methyl ester using a carbopol gel as vehicles. J. Control. Release 2004; 98(1): 57-65.
66. Miller, L.L., Smith, G.A., Iontophoretic transport of acetate and carboxylate ions through hairless mouse skin. A cation exchange membrane model Int.J.Pharm.,1989; 49(1): 15-22.
67. Miller, L.L.; Smith, G.A.; Chang, An-Chang.; Zhou, Q.-X. Electrochemically controlled release. J.Control. Release 1987; 6(1): 293-296.
68. Moliton, H., Fernandez, L., I. Experimental studies on the causes and prevention of iontophoretic burns. Am. J. Med. Sci., 1939; 198(6): 778-784.
69. Molitor, H., "Pharmacologic Aspects of Drug Administration by Ion-Transfer," The Merck Report Jan., 1943, p. 22.
70. Morimoto, K.; Iwakura, Y.; Miyazaki, M.; Natakani, E. Effects of proteolytic enzyme inhibitors of enhancement of transdermal iontophoretic delivery of vasopressin and an analogue in rats. Int. J. Pharm. 1992; 81(2-3): 119-25.
71. Nolan, L.M.A.; Corish, J.; Corrigan, O.I.; Fitzpatrick, D. Iontophoretic and chemical enhancement of drug delivery: Part I: Across artificial membranes. Int. J. Pharm. 2003; 257(1-2): 41-55.
72. O'Malley EP, Oester YT . Influences of some physical chemical factors on iontophoresis using radio-isotopes. Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil, 1955; 36: 310.
73. Onken, H.D., Moyer, C.A., The water barrier in human epidermis. Physical and chemical nature.Arch. Dematol., 1963; 87: 584.
74. P. Glikfeld, C. Cullander, R.S. Hinz, R.H. Guy, A new system for in vitro studies of iontophoresis, Pharm. Res., 1988; 5: 443-446.
75. P. Singh, H.I. Maibach, Iontophoresis in drug delivery: basic principles and applications, Crit. Rev. Ther. Drug Carrier Syst. 1994; 11: 161-213.
76. Patel, R., Vasavada, R.C., Drug. Dev. Ind. Pharm., 1990; 16: 1365.
77. Phipps J.B., Padmanabhan R.V. and Lattin G.A. Iontophoretic delivery of model inorganic and drug ions. J Pharm Sci., 1989; 78: 365.
78. Pikal MJ, Shah S. Transport mechanisms in iontophoresis II. Electroosmotic flow and transference number measurement for hairless mouse skin. Pharm Res 1990;7:313-21.
79. Pillai, O.; Nair, V.; Panchagnula, R. Transdermal iontophoresis of insulin : IV. Influence of chemical enhancers. Int. J. Pharm. 2004; 269(1): 109-120.
80. Pillai, O.; Panchagnula, R. Transdermal delivery of insulin from poloxamer gel: ex vivo and in vivo skin permeation studies in rat using iontophoresis and chemical enhancers.J. Control. Release 2003; 89(1): 127-140.
81. Pillai, O. Panchagnula, R.; Transdermal iontophoresis of insulin: V. Effect of terpenes. J. Control. Release 2003; 88(2): 287-296.
82. R. Harris, Therapeutic electricity and ultraviolet radiation (ed. 2), Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore 1967, p. 156.
83. R. Panchagnula, O. Pillai, V.B.Nair, P.Ramarao.; Transdermal Iontophoresis revisited. Current Opinion in Chemical Biology. 2000; 4: 468-473.
84. R.O. Potts, J.A. Tamada, M.J. Tierney, Glucose monitoring by reverse iontophoresis, Diabetes Metab. Res. Rev. 2002; 18: S49-S53.
85. R.R. Burnette, B. Ongpipattanakul, Characterization of the permselective properties of excised human skin during iontophoresis, J. Pharm. Sci. 1987; 76: 765-773.
86. Rawat S., Vengurlekar S ., Rakesh B.,Jain s.,Srikarti G.,Transdermal Delivery by Iontophoresis. Indian J. Pharm. Sci., 2008; 70(1): 5-10.
87. Roberts, M.S.; Favretto, W.A.; Meyer, A.; Rechmann, M.; Wongseelashote, T. Aust. N Z J. Med. 1982; 12: 305.
88. Roberts, M.S.; Lai, P.M.; Cross, S.E.; Yoshida, N.H. In: Mechanisms of Transdermal Drug Delivery. Marcel Dekker, New York, 1997, pp. 291-349.
89. S. Chesnoy, D. Durand, J. Doucet, G. Couarraze, Structural parameters involved in the permeation of propranolol HCl by iontophoresis and enhancers. J. Control Release., 1999: 58 (2): 163-175.
90. S. Mitragotri, J. Kost, Low-frequency sonophoresis. A review, Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 2004; 56 : 589-601.
91. Sage, B.H. In Encyclopedia of pharmaceutical Technology, Swarbrick, J.; Boylan, J.C., Eds.; Marcel Dekker Inc.: New York, 1993, Vol. 8, 217-247.
92. Sanderson, J.E. Riel, S.D., Dixon, R., Iontophoretic delivery of nonpeptide drugs: Formulation optimization for maximum skin permeability. J. Pharm. Sci., 1989; 78(5): 361-364.
93. Schriber WJ, editor. A manual of electrotherapy, 4th ed., Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger; 1975. p. 125-131
94. Sebastiani, P.; Nicoli, S.; Santi, P.Effect of lactic acid and iontophoresis on drug permeation across rabbit ear skin. Int. J. Pharm. 2005; 292(1-2): 119-126.
95. Sekkat, N.; Naik, A.; Kalia, Y.N.; Glikfeld, P.; Guy, R.H. Reverse iontophoretic monitoring in premature neonates: feasibility and potential. J. Control. Release 2002; 81(1-2): 83-89.
96. Siddiqui, O., Sun, Y., Liu, J.C., Chien, Y.W., Facilitated transdermal transport of insulin. J. Pharm. Sci., 1987; 76 : 341-345.
97. Siddiqui, O.; Roberts, M.S.; Polack, A.E. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 1985; 37(10): 732-735.
98. Singh P, Maibach HI, Iontophoresis in drug delivery: basic principles and applications. Crit Rev Ther Drug Carrier Syst.,1994; 11(2-3): 161-213.
99. Singh, P.; Boniello, S.; Liu, P.; Dinh, S. Iontophoretic transdermal delivery of methylphenidate hydrochloride. Pharm. Res. 1997; 14(1): S309-10
100. Sloan, J.B., Saltani, K., Iontophoresis in dermatology. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol.,1986; 15: 671-684.
101. Smyth, H.D.C.; Becket, G.; Mehta, S. Effect of permeation enhancer pretreatment on the iontophoresis of luteinizing hormone releasing hormone (LHRH) through human epidermal membrane (HEM). J. Pharm. Sci. 2002; 91(5): 1296-1307.
102. Srinivasan, V., Higuchi, W.I., A model for iontophoresis incorporating the effect of convective solvent flow. Int. J. Pharm., 1990; 60: 133.
103. Srinivasan, V., Higuchi, W.i., Sims., Ghenem, A.H., Behl, C.R., Transdermal iontophoretic drug delivery: Mechanistic analysis and application to polypeptide delivery. J. Pharm. Sci., 1989; 78(5) : 370-375.
104. Srinivasan, V., Higuchu, W.I., Su, M.H., Baseline studies with the four-electrode system: The effect of skin permeability increase and water transport on the flux of a model uncharged solute during iontophoresis. J. Control Release., 1989; 10(2): 157-165.
105. Sung, K.C.; Fang, J.-Y.; Hu, O.Y.-P. Delivery of nalbuphine and its prodrugs across skin by passive diffusion and iontophoresis. J. Control. Release 2000; 67(1): 1-8.
106. Jaskari T., M. Vuorio, K. Kontturi, A. Urtti, J.A. Manzanares, J. Hirvonen, Controlled transdermal iontophoresis by ion-exchange fiber. J. Control Release 2000; 67(2-3): 179-190.
107. Jaskari T., M. Vuorio, K. Kontturi, J.A. Manzanares, J. Hirvonen, Ion-exchange fibers and drugs: an equilibrium study. J. Control Release., 2001; 70(1-2): 219-229.
108. Kankkunen T., I. Huupponen, K. Lahtinen, M. Sundell, K. Ekman, K. Kontturi, J. Hirvonen, Improved stability and release control of levodopa and metaraminol using ion-exchange fibers and transdermal iontophoresis. Eur. J.Pharm.Sci.,2002; 16: 273-280.
109. Kankkunen T., R. Sulkava, M. Vuorio, K. Kontturi, J. Hirvonen, Transdermal iontophoresis of tacrine in vivo. Pharm. Res.,2002; 19: 704-707.
110. Takahashi, Y.; Iwata, M.; Mahila, Y. Yakugaku Zasshi, 2001; 121(2): 161-166.
111. Suzuki, Y.; Iga, K.; Yanai, S.; Matsumoto, Y.; Kawase, M.; Fukuda, T.; Adachi, H.; Higo, N.; Ogawa, Y. Iontophoretic pulsatile transdermal delivery of human parathyroid hormone. J. Pharm. Pharmaco. 2001; 53(9): 227-234.
112. Thysman, S.; Préat, V.; Roland, M. Factors affecting iontophoretic mobility of metoprolol. J. Pharm. Sci. 1992; 81(7): 670-675.
113. Tiwari, S. B.; Udupa, N. Investigation into the potential of iontophoresis facilitated delivery of ketorolac. Int. J. Pharm. 2003; 260(1): 93-103.
114. Tyle P. Iontophoretic devices for drug delivery. Pharm Res., 1986; 3: 318-326.
115. V. Regnier, V. Preat, Localization of a FITC-labeled phosphorothioateoligodeoxy nucleotide in the skin after topical delivery by iontophoresis and electroporation. Pharm. Res. 1998; 15: 1596-1602.
116. V. Srinivasan, W.I. Higuchi, A model for iontophoresis incorporating the effect of convective solvent flow, Int. J. Pharm. 1990; 60: 133-198.
117. Vander-Geest, R.; Hueber, F.; Szoka, F.C. Jr.; Guy, R.H. Iontophoresis of bases, nucleosides, and nucleotides. Pharm. Res., 1996; 13(4): 553-8.
118. W. Lin, M. Cormier, A. Samiee, A. Griffin, B. Johnson, C.L. Teng, G.E. Hardee, P.E. Daddona, Transdermal delivery of antisense oligonucleotides with microprojection patch (Macroflux) technology. Pharm. Res., 2001; 18: 1789-1793.
119. Wang Y, Thakur R, Fan Q, Michniak B. Transdermal iontophoresis: combination strategies to improve transdermal iontophoretic drug delivery. Eur J Pharm Biopharm., 2005; 60(2):179-191.
120. Y. Karakoc, E.H. Aydemir, M.T. Kalkan, G. Unal, Safe control of palmoplantar hyperhidrosis with direct electrical current. Int. J. Dermatol., 2002;41: 602-605.
121. Y.W. Chien, Transdermal route of peptide and protein drug delivery, Marcel Dekker Inc, New York, 1991. pp. 667-690
122. Yogeshvar N. Kalia Aarti Naik, James Garrison and Richard H. Guy , Iontophoretic drug delivery Adv.Drug Del. Rev., 2004; 56(5): 619-658.
123. Zakzewski, C.A., Li, J.K. Pulsed mode constant current iontophoretic transdermal metaprolol tartrate delivery in established acute hypertensive rabbits. J. Control Release., 1991; 17(2): 157-162.