Circadian rhythms in the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis

Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology

Volumn 349, Issue 1, 2012, Pages 20-29

  Kalsbeek, A ^a,b   van der Spek, R ^a   Lei, J ^b   Endert, E ^a   Buijs, R M ^c   Fliers, E ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM   (Netherlands)

^b NETHERLANDS INSTITUTE FOR NEUROSCIENCE   (Netherlands)

^c INSTITUTO DE INVESTIGACIONES BIOMÉDICAS   (Mexico)

Author keywords

ACTH; Autonomic nervous system; Corticosterone Cortisal; CRH.; Suprachiasmatic nucleus; Vasopressin

Indexed keywords

CORTICOSTERONE; CORTICOTROPIN; CRYPTOCHROME 1; CRYPTOCHROME 2; GLUCOCORTICOID; GLUCOCORTICOID RECEPTOR; HYDROCORTISONE; TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR CLOCK;

ADRENAL GLAND; AROUSAL; BRAIN FUNCTION; CIRCADIAN RHYTHM; FEEDING; GENE EXPRESSION; HORMONE ACTION; HORMONE RELEASE; HUMAN; HYPOTHALAMUS HYPOPHYSIS ADRENAL SYSTEM; NEUROTRANSMISSION; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN FUNCTION; REVIEW; SUPRACHIASMATIC NUCLEUS;

ADRENAL GLANDS; ANIMALS; ANTICIPATION, PSYCHOLOGICAL; CIRCADIAN CLOCKS; CIRCADIAN RHYTHM; HORMONES; HUMANS; HYPOTHALAMO-HYPOPHYSEAL SYSTEM; HYPOTHALAMUS; PITUITARY-ADRENAL SYSTEM;

EID: 83555178544     PISSN: 03037207     EISSN: 18728057     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2011.06.042     Document Type: Review

References (123)

1. Alexander L.D., Sander L.D. Vasoactive intestinal peptide stimulates ACTH and corticosterone release after injection into the PVN. Regul. Pept. 1994, 51:221-227.
2. Almon R.R., Yang E., Lai W., Androulakis I.P., Ghimbovschi S., Hoffman E.P., Jusko W.J., Dubois D.C. Relationships between circadian rhythms and modulation of gene expression by glucocorticoids in skeletal muscle. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 2008, 295:R1031-R1047.
3. Amir S., Lamont E.W., Robinson B., Stewart J. A circadian rhythm in the expression of PERIOD2 protein reveals a novel SCN-controlled oscillator in the oval nucleus of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis. J. Neurosci. 2004, 24:781-790.
4. Andrews R.V., Folk G.E. Circadian metabolic patterns in cultured hamster adrenal glands. Comp. Biochem. Phsyiol. 1964, 11:393-409.
5. Balsalobre A., Brown S.A., Marcacci L., Tronche F., Kellendonk C., Reichardt H.M., Schütz G., Schibler U. Resetting of circadian time in peripheral tissues by glucocorticoid signaling. Science 2000, 289:2344-2347.
6. Bittman E.L., Doherty L., Huang L.Y., Paroskie A. Period gene expression in mouse endocrine tissues. Am. J. Physiol. 2003, 285:R561-R569.
7. Bornstein S.R., Engeland W.C., Ehrhart-Bornstein M., Herman J.P. Dissociation of ACTH and glucocorticoids. Trends Endocrinol. Metab. 2008, 19:175-180.
8. Boulos Z., Terman M. Food availability and daily biological rhythms. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 1980, 4:119-131.
9. Buijs R.M., Wortel J., Van Heerikhuize J.J., Feenstra M.G.P., Ter Horst G.J., Romijn H.J., Kalsbeek A. Anatomical and functional demonstration of a multisynaptic suprachiasmatic nucleus adrenal (cortex) pathway. Eur. J. Neurosc. 1999, 11:1535-1544.
10. Buijs R.M., Van Eden C.G. The integration of stress by the hypothalamus, amygdala and prefrontal cortex: balance between the autonomic nervous system and the neuroendocrine system. Prog. Brain Res. 2000, 126:117-132.
11. Buijs R.M., Escobar C. Corticosterone and activity: the long arms of the clock talk back. Endocrinology 2007, 148:5162-5164.
12. Bur I.M., Zouaoui S., Fontanaud P., Coutry N., Molino F., Martin A.O., Mollard P., Bonnefont X. The comparison between circadian oscillators in mouse liver and pituitary gland reveals different integration of feeding and light schedules. PLoS One 2010, 5:e15316.
13. Cai A.H., Wise P.M. Age-related changes in the diurnal rhythm of CRH gene expression in the paraventricular nuclei. Am. J. Physiol. 1996, 270:E238-E243.
14. Cailotto C., Lei J., van der Vliet J., van Heijningen C., van Eden C.G., Kalsbeek A., Pévet P., Buijs R.M. Effects of nocturnal light on (clock) gene expression in peripheral organs: a role for the autonomic innervation of the liver. PLoS One 2009, 4:e5650.
15. Cascio C.S., Shinsako J., Dallman M.F. The suprachiasmatic nuclei stimulate evening ACTH secretion in the rat. Brain Res. 1987, 423:173-178.
16. Charlton B.G. Adrenal cortical innervation and glucocorticoid secretion. J. Endocrinol. 1990, 126:5-8.
17. Cho, K., Ennaceur, A., Cole, J.C., Suh, C.K., 2000. Chronic jet lag produces cognitive deficits. J. Neurosci. 20, RC661-RC665.
18. Chung S., Son G.H., Kim K. Circadian rhythm of adrenal glucocorticoid: its regulation and clinical implication. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 2011, 1812:581-591.
19. Cintra A., Bhatnagar M., Chadi G., Tinner B., Lindberg J., Gustafsson J.A., Agnati L.F., Fuxe K. Glial and neuronal glucocorticoid receptor immunoreactive cell populations in developing, adult, and aging brain. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 1994, 746:42-61.
20. Coupland R.E., Parker T.L., Kesse W.K., Mohamed A.A. The innervation of the adrenal gland. III: Vagal innervation. J. Anat. 1989, 163:173-181.
21. Cuesta M., Mendoza J., Clesse D., Pévet P., Challet E. Serotonergic activation potentiates light resetting of the main circadian clock and alters clock gene expression in a diurnal rodent. Exp. Neurol. 2008, 210:501-513.
22. Dallman M.F., Engeland W.C., Rose J.C., Wilkinson C.W., Shinsako J., Siedenburg F. Nycthemeral rhythm in adrenal responsiveness to ACTH. Am. J. Physiol. 1978, 235:R210-218.
23. Dallman M.F., Strack A.M., Akana S.F., Bradbury M.J., Hanson E.S., Scribner K.A., Smith M. Feast and famine - critical role of glucocorticoids with insulin in daily energy flow. Front. Neuroendocrinol. 1993, 14:303-347.
24. Dardente H., Menet J.S., Challet E., Tournier B.B., Pévet P., Masson-Pévet M. Daily and circadian expression of neuropeptides in the suprachiasmatic nuclei of nocturnal and diurnal rodents. Mol. Brain Res. 2004, 124:143-151.
25. Deuschle M., Schweiger U., Weber B., Gotthardt U., Korner A., Schmider J., Stanhardt E., Lammers C.H., Heuser I. Diurnal activity and pulsatility of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal system in male depressed patients and healthy controls. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 1997, 82:234-238.
26. Dickmeis T. Glucocorticoids and the circadian clock. J. Endocrinol. 2009, 200:3-22.
27. Edwards A.V., Jones C.T. Autonomic control of adrenal function. J. Anat. 1993, 183:291-307.
28. Engeland W.C. Functional innervation of the adrenal cortex by the splanchnic nerve. Horm. Metab. Res. 1998, 30:311-314.
29. Fahrenkrug J., Hannibal J., Georg B. Diurnal rhythmicity of the canonical clock genes Per1, Per2 and Bmal1 in the rat adrenal gland is unaltered after hypophysectomy. J. Neuroendocrinol. 2008, 20:323-329.
30. Fischman A.J., Kastin A.J., Graf M.V., Moldow R.L. Constant light and dark affect the circadian rhythm of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Neuroendocrinology 1988, 47:309-316.
31. Fullerton D.T., Wenzel F.J., Lohrenz F.N., Fahs H. Circadian rhythm of adrenal cortical activity in depression. I: A comparison of depressed patients with normal subjects. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 1968, 19:674-681.
32. Gallego M., Virshup D.M. Post-translational modifications regulate the ticking of the circadian clock. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2007, 8:139-148.
33. Gibbs F.P. Circadian variation of ether-induced corticosterone secretion in the rat. Am. J. Physiol. 1970, 219:288-292.
34. Girardet C., Becquet D., Blanchard M.P., Francois-Bellan A.M., Bosler O. Neuroglial and synaptic rearrangements associated with photic entrainment of the circadian clock in the suprachiasmatic nucleus. Eur. J. Neurosci. 2010, 32:2133-2142.
35. Girotti M., Weinberg M.S., Spencer R.L. Diurnal expression of functional and clock-related genes throughout the rat HPA axis: system-wide shifts in response to a restricted feeding schedule. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 2009, 296:E888-897.
36. Graham E.S., Littlewood P., Turnbull Y., Mercer J.G., Morgan P.J., Barrett P. Neuromedin-U is regulated by the circadian clock in the SCN of the mouse. Eur. J. Neurosci. 2005, 21:814-819.
37. Hendrickson A.E., Wagoner N., Cowan W.M. An autoradiographic and electron microscopic study of retino-hypothalamic connections. Zeitschr. Zellforsch. 1972, 135:1-26.
38. Hermes M.L.H.J., Ruijter J.M., Klop A., Buijs R.M., Renaud L.P. Vasopressin increases GABAergic inhibition of rat hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus neurons in vitro. J. Neurophysiol. 2000, 83:705-711.
39. Honma K.-I., Noe Y., Honma S., Katsuno Y., Hiroshige T. Roles of paraventricular catecholamines in feeding-associated corticosterone rhythm in rats. Am. J. Physiol. 1992, 262:E948-E955.
40. Ishida A., Mutoh T., Ueyama T., Bando H., Masubuchi S., Nakahara D., Tsujimoto G., Okamura H. Light activates the adrenal gland: timing of gene expression and glucocorticoid release. Cell Metab. 2005, 2:297-307.
41. Jasper M.S., Engeland W.C. Splanchnic neural activity modulates ultradian and circadian rhythms in adrenocortical secretion in awake rats. Neuroendocrinology 1994, 59:97-109.
42. Joëls M., Urban I.J.A. The effect of microiontophoretically applied vasopressin and oxytocin on single neurones in the septum and dorsal hippocampus of the rat. Neurosci. Lett. 1982, 33:79-84.
43. Kalra S.P., Dube M.G., Sahu A., Phelps C.P., Kalra P.S. Neuropeptide Y secretion increases in the paraventricular nucleus in association with increased appetite for food. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1991, 88:10931-10935.
44. Kalsbeek A., Buijs R.M., Van Heerikhuize J.J., Aerts M., Van Der Woude T.P. Vasopressin-containing neurons of the suprachiasmatic nuclei inhibit corticosterone release. Brain Res. 1992, 580:62-67.
45. Kalsbeek A., Van Heerikhuize J.J., Wortel J., Buijs R.M. A diurnal rhythm of stimulatory input to the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal system as revealed by timed intrahypothalamic administration of the vasopressin V1 antagonist. J. Neurosci. 1996, 16:5555-5565.
46. Kalsbeek A., Van Der Vliet J., Buijs R.M. Decrease of endogenous vasopressin release necessary for expression of the circadian rise in plasma corticosterone: a reverse microdialysis study. J. Neuroendocrinol. 1996, 8:299-307.
47. Kalsbeek A., Van Heerikhuize J.J., Wortel J., Buijs R.M. Restricted daytime feeding modifies suprachiasmatic nucleus vasopressin release in rats. J. Biol. Rhythms 1998, 13:28-29.
48. Kalsbeek A., Ruiter M., La Fleur S.E., Van Heijningen C., Buijs R.M. The diurnal modulation of hormonal responses in the rat varies with different stimuli. J. Neuroendocrinol. 2003, 15:1144-1155.
49. Kalsbeek A., Verhagen L.A., Schalij I., Foppen E., Saboureau M., Bothorel B., Buijs R.M., Pévet P. Opposite actions of hypothalamic vasopressin on circadian corticosterone rhythm in nocturnal versus diurnal species. Eur. J. Neurosci. 2008, 27:818-827.
50. Kalsbeek A., Fliers E., Hofman M.A., Swaab D.F., Buijs R.M. Vasopressin and the output of the hypothalamic biological clock. J. Neuroendocrinol. 2010, 22:362-372.
51. Kaneko M., Hiroshige T., Shinsako J., Dallman M.F. Diurnal changes in amplification of hormone rhythms in the adrenocortical system. Am. J. Physiol. 1980, 239:R309-R316.
52. Kaneko M., Kaneko K., Shinsako J., Dallman M.F. Adrenal sensitivity to adrenocorticotropin varies diurnally. Endocrinology 1981, 109:70-75.
53. Kesse W.K., Parker T.L., Coupland R.E. The innervation of the adrenal gland. I: The source of pre- and postganglionic nerve fibres to the rat adrenal gland. J. Anat. 1988, 157:33-41.
54. Kiessling S., Eichele G., Oster H. Adrenal glucocorticoids have a key role in circadian resynchronization in a mouse model of jet lag. J. Clin. Invest. 2010, 120:2600-2609.
55. Ko C.H., Takahashi J.S. Molecular components of the mammalian circadian clock. Hum. Mol. Genet. 2006, 15:R271-277.
56. Kow L.M., Pfaff D.W. Vasopressin excites ventromedial hypothalamic glucose-responsive neurons in vitro. Physiol. Behav. 1986, 37:153-158.
57. Krieger D.T. Food and water restriction shifts corticosterone, temperature, activity and brain amine periodicity. Endocrinology 1974, 95:1195-1201.
58. Krieger D.T., Hauser H., Krey L.C. Suprachiasmatic nuclear lesions do not abolish food-shifted circadian adrenal and temperature rhythmicity. Science 1977, 197:398-399.
59. Kwak S.P., Young E.A., Morano I., Watson S.J., Akil H. Diurnal corticotropin-releasing hormone messenger RNA variation in the hypothalamus exhibits a rhythm distinct from that of plasma corticosterone. Neuroendocrinology 1992, 55:74-83.
60. Lammers C.H., Garcia-Borreguero D., Schmider J., Gotthardt U., Dettling M., Holsboer F., Heuser I.J. Combined dexamethasone/corticotropin-releasing hormone test in patients with schizophrenia and in normal controls: II. Biol. Psychiatry 1995, 38:803-807.
61. Lamont E.W., Robinson B., Stewart J., Amir S. The central and basolateral nuclei of the amygdala exhibit opposite diurnal rhythms of expression of the clock protein Period2. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2005, 102:4180-4184.
62. Leal A.M.O., Moreira A.C. Feeding and the diurnal variation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and its responses to CRH and ACTH in rats. Neuroendocrinology 1996, 64:14-19.
63. Linkowski P., Mendlewicz J., LeClercq R., Brasseur M., Hubain P., Golstein J., Copinschi G., Van Cauter E. The 24-hour profile of adrenocorticotropin and cortisol in major depressive illness. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 1985, 61:429-438.
64. Loh D.H., Abad C., Colwell C.S., Waschek J.A. Vasoactive intestinal peptide is critical for circadian regulation of glucocorticoids. Neuroendocrinology 2008, 88:246-255.
65. Meier A.H. Daily variation in concentration of plasma corticosteroid in hypophysectomized rats. Endocrinology 1976, 98:1475-1479.
66. Migeon C.J., Migeon C.J., Tyler F.H., Florentin A.A., Castle H., Bliss E.L., Samuels L.T. The diurnal variation of plasma levels and urinary excretion of 17-hydroxy-corticosteroids in normal subjects, night workers and blind subjects. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 1956, 16:622-633.
67. Mahoney C.E., Brewer D., Costello M.K., Brewer J.McKinley, Bittman E.L. Lateralization of the central circadian pacemaker output: a test of neural control of peripheral oscillator phase. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 2010, 299:R751-R761.
68. Malek Z.S., Sage D., Pévet P., Raison S. Daily rhythm of tryptophan hydroxylase-2 messenger ribonucleic acid within raphe neurons is induced by corticoid daily surge and modulated by enhanced locomotor activity. Endocrinology 2007, 148:5165-5172.
69. Moore R.Y. Neural control of the pineal gland. Behav. Brain Res. 1996, 73:125-130.
70. Moore R.Y., Eichler V.B. Loss of a circadian adrenal corticosterone rhythm following suprachiasmatic lesions in the rat. Brain Res. 1972, 42:201-206.
71. Moore R.Y., Lenn N.J. A retinohypothalamic projection in the rat. J. Comp. Neurol. 1972, 146:1-9.
72. Moore-Ede, M.C., Sulzman, F.M., Fuller, C.A., 1982. Circadian timing of physiological systems. In: The Clocks that Time us. Physiology of the Circadian Timing System. Harvard University Press, pp. 201-294 (Chapter V).
73. Morin L.P. Serotonin and the regulation of mammalian circadian rhythmicity. Ann. Med. 1999, 31:12-33.
74. Mortola J.F., Liu J.H., Gillin J.C., Rasmussen D.D., Yen S.S. Pulsatile rhythms of adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) and cortisol in women with endogenous depression: evidence for increased ACTH pulse frequency. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 1987, 65:962-968.
75. Mrosovsky N. Locomotor activity and non-photic influences on circadian clocks. Biol. Rev. Cambridge Phil. Soc. 1996, 71:343-372.
76. Nader N., Chrousos G.P., Kino T. Interactions of the circadian CLOCK system and the HPA axis. Trends Endocrinol. Metab. 2010, 21:277-286.
77. Nelson W., Scheving L., Halberg F. Circadian rhythms in mice fed a single daily meal at different stages of lighting regimen. J. Nutr. 1975, 105:171-184.
78. Niijima A. Electrophysiological study on the vagal innervation of the adrenal gland in the rat. J. Auton. Nerv. Syst. 1992, 41:87-92.
79. O'Brien J.T., Ames D., Schweitzer I., Mastwyk M., Colman P. Enhanced adrenal sensitivity to adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) is evidence of HPA axis hyperactivity in Alzheimer's disease. Physiol. Med. 1996, 26:7-14.
80. O'Hare M.J., Hornsby P.J. Absence of a circadian rhythm of corticosterone secretion in monolayer cultures of adult rat adrenocortical cells. Experientia 1975, 31:378-380.
81. Oishi K., Amagai N., Shirai H., Kadota K., Ohkura N., Ishida N. Genome-wide expression analysis reveals 100 adrenal gland-dependent circadian genes in the mouse liver. DNA Res. 2005, 12:191-202.
82. Oster H., Damerow S., Kiessling S., Jakubcakova V., Abraham D., Tian J., Hoffmann M.W., Eichele G. The circadian rhythm of glucocorticoids is regulated by a gating mechanism residing in the adrenal cortical clock. Cell Metab. 2006, 4:163-173.
83. Oster H., Damerow S., Hut R.A., Eichele G. Transcriptional profiling in the adrenal gland reveals circadian regulation of hormone biosynthesis genes and nucleosome assembly genes. J. Biol. Rhythms 2006, 21:350-361.
84. Ottenweller J.E., Meier A.H. Adrenal innervation may be an extrapituitary mechanism able to regulate adrenocortical rhythmicity in rats. Endocrinology 1982, 111:1334-1338.
85. Panda S., Antoch M.P., Miller B.H., Su A.I., Schook A.B., Straume M., Schultz P.G., Kay S.A., Takahashi J.S., Hogenesch J.B. Coordinated transcription of key pathways in the mouse by the circadian clock. Cell 2002, 109:307-320.
86. Perlow M.J., Reppert S.M., Boyart R.M., Klein D.C. Daily rhythms in cortisol and melatonin in primate cerebrospinal fluid. Effects of constant light and dark. Neuroendocrinology 1981, 32:193-196.
87. Perreau-Lenz S., Pévet P., Buijs R.M., Kalsbeek A. The biological clock: the bodyguard of temporal homeostasis. Chronobiol. Int. 2004, 21:1-25.
88. Pincus G. A diurnal rhythm in the excretion of urinary ketosteroids by young men. J. Clin. Endocrinol. 1943, 3:195-199.
89. Prasai M.J., Pernicova I., Grant P.J., Scott E.M. An endocrinologist's guide to the clock. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2011, 96:913-922.
90. Reppert S.M., Weaver D.R. Molecular analysis of mammalian circadian rhythms. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 2001, 63:647-676.
91. Richter C.P. A behavioristic study of the activity of the rat. Comp. Psychol. Monogr. 1922, 1:1-54.
92. Ritter S., Watts A.G., Dinh T.T., Sanchez-Watts G., Pedrow C. Immunotoxin lesion of hypothalamically projecting norepinephrine and epinephrine neurons differentially affects circadian and stressor-stimulated corticosterone secretion. Endocrinology 2003, 144:1357-1367.
93. Sachar E.J., Hellman L., Roffwarg H.P., Halpern F.S., Fukushima D.K., Gallagher T.F. Disrupted 24-hour patterns of cortisol secretion in psychotic depression. Arch. Gen. Psychiat. 1973, 28:19-24.
94. Sage D., Ganem J., Guillaumond F., LaforgeAnglade G., Francois-Bellan A.M., Bosler O., Becquet D. Influence of the corticosterone rhythm on photic entrainment of locomotor activity in rats. J. Biol. Rhythms 2004, 19:144-156.
95. Segall L.A., Amir S. Glucocorticoid regulation of clock gene expression in the mammalian limbic forebrain. J. Mol. Neurosci. 2010, 42:168-175.
96. So A.Y., Bernal T.U., Pillsbury M.L., Yamamoto K.R., Feldman B.J. Glucocorticoid regulation of the circadian clock modulates glucose homeostasis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2009, 106:17582-17587.
97. Son G.H., Chung S., Choe H.K., Kim H.D., Baik S.M., Lee H., Lee H.W., Choi S., Sun W., Kim H., Cho S., Lee K.H., Kim K. Adrenal peripheral clock controls the autonomous circadian rhythm of glucocorticoid by causing rhythmic steroid production. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2008, 105:20970-20975.
98. Stephan F.K. The " other" circadian system: food as a Zeitgeber. J. Biol. Rhythms 2002, 17:284-292.
99. Stephan F.K., Zucker I. Circadian rhythms in drinking behavior and locomotor activity of rats are eliminated by hypothalamic lesions. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1972, 69:1583-1586.
100. Sulzman F.M., Fuller C.A., Moore-Ede M.C. Feeding time synchronizes primate circadian rhythms. Physiol. Behav. 1977, 18:775-779.
101. Takahashi K., Inoue K., Takahashi Y. Parallel shift in circadian rhythms of adrenocortical activity and food intake in blinded and intact rats exposed to continuous illumination. Endocrinology 1977, 100:1097-1107.
102. Torra I.P., Tsibulsky V., Delaunay F., Saladin R., Laudet V., Fruchart J.C., Kosykh V., Staels B. Circadian and glucocorticoid regulation of Rev-erb alpha expression in liver. Endocrinology 2000, 141:3799-3806.
103. Torres-Farfan C., Rocco V., Monso C., Valenzuela F.J., Campino C., Germain A., Torrealba F., Valenzuela G.J., Seron-Ferre M. Maternal melatonin effects on clock gene expression in a nonhuman primate fetus. Endocrinology 2006, 147:4618-4626.
104. Torres-Farfan C., Valenzuela F.J., Ebensperger R., Mendez N., Campino C., Richter H.G., Valenzuela G.J., Seron-Ferre M. Circadian cortisol secretion and circadian adrenal responses to ACTH are maintained in dexamethasone suppressed capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella). Am. J. Primatol. 2008, 70:93-100.
105. Tousson E., Meissl H. Suprachiasmatic nuclei grafts restore the circadian rhythm in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus. J. Neurosci. 2004, 24:2983-2988.
106. Ulrich-Lai Y.M., Arnhold M.M., Engeland W.C. Adrenal splanchnic innervation contributes to the diurnal rhythm of plasma corticosterone in rats by modulating adrenal sensitivity to ACTH. Am. J. Physiol. 2006, 290:R1128-1135.
107. Ungar F., Halberg F. Circadian rhythm in the in vitro response of mouse adrenal to adrenocorticotropic hormone. Science 1962, 137:1058-1060.
108. Van Eekelen J.A.M., Rosenfeld P., Levine S., Westphal H.M., De Kloet E.R. Postnatal disappearance of glucocorticoid receptor immunoreactivity in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the rat. Neurosci. Res. Commun. 1987, 1:129-133.
109. Vermes I., Beishuizen A. The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal response to critical illness. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2001, 15:495-511.
110. Vrang N., Larsen P.J., Mikkelsen J.D. Direct projection from the suprachiasmatic nucleus to hypophysiotrophic corticotropin-releasing factor immunoreactive cells in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus demonstrated by means of Phaseolus vulgaris-leucoagglutinin tract tracing. Brain Res. 1995, 684:61-69.
111. Watts A.G. Glucocorticoid regulation of peptide genes in neuroendocrine CRH neurons: a complexity beyond negative feedback. Front. Neuroendocrinol. 2005, 26:109-130.
112. Watts A.G., Swanson L.W. Efferent projections of the suprachiasmatic nucleus: II. Studies using retrograde transport of fluorescent dyes and simultaneous peptide immunohistochemistry in the rat. J. Comp. Neurol. 1987, 258:230-252.
113. Watts A.G., Swanson L.W., Sanchez-Watts G. Efferent projections of the suprachiasmatic nucleus: I. Studies using anterograde transport of Phaseolus vulgaris leucoagglutinin in the rat. J. Comp. Neurol. 1987, 258:204-229.
114. Watts A.G., Swanson L.W. Diurnal variations in the content of preprocorticotropin-releasing hormone messenger ribonucleic acids in the hypothalamus paraventricular nucleus of rats of both sexes as measured by in situ hybridization. Endocrinology 1989, 125:1734-1738.
115. Watts A.G., Tanimura S., Sanchez-Watts G. Corticotrophin-releasing hormone and arginine vasopressin gene transcription in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus of unstressed rats: daily rhythms and their interactions with corticosterone. Endocrinology 2004, 145:529-540.
116. Weinert D., Eimert H., Erkert H.G., Schneyer U. Resynchronization of the circadian corticosterone rhythm after a light/dark shift in juvenile and adult mice. Chronobiol. Int. 1994, 11:222-231.
117. Wilkinson C.W., Shinsako J., Dallman M.F. Daily rhythms in adrenal responsiveness to adrenocorticotropin are determined primarily by the time of feeding in the rat. Endocrinology 1979, 104:350-359.
118. Yamamoto T., Nakahata Y., Tanaka M., Yoshida M., Soma H., Shinohara K., Yasuda A., Mamine T., Takumi T. Acute physical stress elevates mPeriod1 mRNA expression in mouse peripheral tissues via a glucocorticoid responsive element. J. Biol. Chem. 2005, 280:42036-42043.
119. Yi C.X., Acosta-Galvan G., Van Der Vliet J., Jhamandas J.H., Panula P., Angeles-Castellanos M., Basualdo M.D.C., Escobar C., Buijs R.M. Interaction between hypothalamic dorsomedial nucleus and the suprachiasmatic nucleus determines intensity of food anticipatory behavior. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 2011, 108:5813-5818.
120. Yoshihara T., Honma S., Katsuno Y., Honma K. Dissociation of paraventricular NPY release and plasma corticosterone levels in rats under food deprivation. Am. J. Physiol. 1996, 271:E239-E245.
121. Yoshihara T., Honma S., Honma K. Effects of restricted daily feeding on neuropeptide Y release in the rat paraventricular nucleus. Am. J. Physiol. 1996, 270:E589-E595.
122. Yoshihara T., Honma S., Honma K. Prefeeding release of paraventricular neuropeptide Y is mediated by ascending noradrenergic neurons in rats. Am. J. Physiol. 1996, 270:E596-E600.
123. Zimmerman E., Critchlow V. Effects of diurnal variation in plasma corticosterone levels on adrenocortical response to stress. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 1967, 125:658-663.