Smoking as a risk factor for autoimmune liver disease: What we can learn from primary biliary cirrhosis

Annals of Hepatology

Volumn 11, Issue 1, 2012, Pages 7-14

  Smyk, Daniel S ^a   Rigopoulou, Eirini I ^b   Muratori, Luigi ^c   Burroughs, Andrew K ^d   Bogdanos, Dimitrios P ^a  

^a KING S COLLEGE HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF THESSALY   (Greece)

^c UNIVERSITY OF BOLOGNA   (Italy)

^d ROYAL FREE HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Autoimmune disease; Autoimmunity; Cigarette; Liver; Prevention; Smoking

Indexed keywords

ANTINUCLEAR ANTIBODY; MITOCHONDRION ANTIBODY;

AGE; ARTICLE; AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE; BILE DUCT; CELL DESTRUCTION; CHOLESTATIC HEPATITIS; DISEASE COURSE; EPITHELIUM CELL; FAMILY HISTORY; GENDER; HISTOPATHOLOGY; HUMAN; INCIDENCE; LIVER FIBROSIS; PRIMARY BILIARY CIRRHOSIS; RECURRENT INFECTION; RISK FACTOR; SMOKING; URINARY TRACT INFECTION;

EID: 83055161415     PISSN: 16652681     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/s1665-2681(19)31481-4     Document Type: Article

References (119)

1. Hohenester S, Oude-Elferink RP, Beuers U. Primary biliary cirrhosis. Semin Immunopathol 2009; 31: 283-307.
2. Kaplan MM, Gershwin ME. Primary biliary cirrhosis. N Engl J Med 2005; 353: 1261-73.
3. Lindor KD, Gershwin ME, Poupon R, Kaplan M, Bergasa NV, Heathcote EJ. Primary biliary cirrhosis. Hepatology 2009; 50: 291-308.
4. Agmon-Levin N, Katz BS, Shoenfeld Y. Infection and primary biliary cirrhosis. Isr Med Assoc J 2009; 11: 112-5.
5. Poupon R. Primary biliary cirrhosis: a 2010 update. J Hepatol 2010; 52: 745-58.
6. Poupon R, Chazouilleres O, Poupon RE. Chronic cholestatic diseases. J Hepatol 2000; 32(1 Suppl.): 129-40.
7. Bogdanos DP, Baum H, Vergani D. Antimitochondrial and other autoantibodies. Clin Liver Dis 2003; 7: 759-777, vi.
8. Bogdanos DP, Invernizzi P, Mackay IR, Vergani D. Autoimmune liver serology: current diagnostic and clinical challenges. World J Gastroenterol 2008; 14: 3374-87.
9. Bogdanos DP, Komorowski L. Disease-specific autoantibodies in primary biliary cirrhosis. Clin Chim Acta 2011; 412(7-8): 502-12.
10. Neuberger J. Primary biliary cirrhosis. Lancet 1997; 350: 875-9.
11. Kumagi T, Heathcote EJ. Primary biliary cirrhosis. Orphanet J Rare Dis 2008; 3: 1.
12. Bogdanos DP, Liaskos C, Pares A, Norman G, Rigopoulou EI, Caballeria L, et al. Anti-gp210 antibody mirrors disease severity in primary biliary cirrhosis. Hepatology 2007; 45: 1583. author reply 1583-4.
13. Bogdanos DP, Liaskos C, Rigopoulou EI, Dalekos GN. Antimitochondrial antibodies in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: revealing the unforeseen. Clin Chim Acta 2006; 373: 183-4. author reply 185.
14. Bogdanos DP, Pares A, Rodes J, Vergani D. Primary biliary cirrhosis specific antinuclear antibodies in patients from Spain. Am J Gastroenterol 2004; 99: 763-4. author reply 765.
15. Dahnrich C, Pares A, Caballeria L, Rosemann A, Schlumberger W, Probst C, et al. New ELISA for detecting primary biliary cirrhosis-specific antimitochondrial antibodies. Clin Chem 2009; 55: 978-85.
16. Gabeta S, Norman GL, Liaskos C, Papamichalis PA, Zografos T, Garagounis A, et al. Diagnostic relevance and clinical significance of the new enhanced performance M2 (MIT3) ELISA for the detection of IgA and IgG antimitochondrial antibodies in primary biliary cirrhosis. J Clin Immunol 2007; 27: 378-87.
17. Gershwin ME, Mackay IR. Primary biliary cirrhosis: paradigm or paradox for autoimmunity. Gastroenterology 1991; 100: 822-33.
18. Liu H, Norman GL, Shums Z, Worman HJ, Krawitt EL, Bizzaro N, et al. PBC screen: an IgG/IgA dual isotype ELISA detecting multiple mitochondrial and nuclear autoantibodies specific for primary biliary cirrhosis. J Autoimmun 2010; 35: 436-42.
19. Metcalf JV, Mitchison HC, Palmer JM, Jones DE, Bassendine MF, James OF. Natural history of early primary biliary cirrhosis. Lancet 1996; 348: 1399-402.
20. Mitchison HC, Bassendine MF, Hendrick A, Bennett MK, Bird G, Watson AJ, et al. Positive antimitochondrial antibody but normal alkaline phosphatase: is this primary biliary cirrhosis? Hepatology 1986; 6: 1279-84.
21. Rigopoulou EI, Bogdanos DP, Liaskos C, Koutsoumpas A, Baum H, Vergani D, et al. Anti-mitochondrial antibody immunofluorescent titres correlate with the number and intensity of immunoblot-detected mitochondrial bands in patients with primary biliary cirrhosis. Clin Chim Acta 2007; 380: 118-21.
22. Rigopoulou EI, Davies ET, Pares A, Zachou K, Liaskos C, Bogdanos DP, et al. Prevalence and clinical significance of isotype specific antinuclear antibodies in primary biliary cirrhosis. Gut 2005; 54: 528-32.
23. Muratori L, Cassani F, Pappas G, Guidi M, Mele L, Lorenza V, et al. The hepatitic/cholestatic "overlap" syndrome: an Italian experience. Autoimmunity 2002; 35: 565-8.
24. Muratori P, Muratori L, Ferrari R, Cassani F, Bianchi G, Lenzi M, et al. Characterization and clinical impact of antinuclear antibodies in primary biliary cirrhosis. Am J Gastroenterol 2003; 98: 431-7.
25. Muratori P, Muratori L, Gershwin ME, Czaja AJ, Pappas G, MacCariello S, et al. 'True' antimitochondrial antibody-negative primary biliary cirrhosis, low sensitivity of the routine assays, or both? Clin Exp Immunol 2004; 135: 154-8.
26. Granito A, Muratori P, Muratori L, Pappas G, Cassani F, Worthington J, et al. Antibodies to SS-A/Ro-52kD and centromere in autoimmune liver disease: a clue to diagnosis and prognosis of primary biliary cirrhosis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2007; 26: 831-8.
27. Muratori L, Granito A, Muratori P, Pappas G, Bianchi FB. Antimitochondrial antibodies and other antibodies in primary biliary cirrhosis: diagnostic and prognostic value. Clin Liver Dis 2008; 12: 261-76. vii.
28. Muratori P, Granito A, Pappas G, Muratori L, Lenzi M, Bianchi FB. Clinical and serological profile of primary biliary cirrhosis in young and elderly patients. QJM 2008; 101: 505-6.
29. Muratori P, Granito A, Ferri S, Pappas G, Volta U, Menichella R, et al. Multiple nuclear dots and rim-like/membranous IgG isotypes in primary biliary cirrhosis. Autoimmunity 2009; 42: 224-7.
30. Muratori P, Granito A, Pappas G, Pendino GM, Quarneti C, Cicola R, et al. The serological profile of the autoimmune hepatitis/primary biliary cirrhosis overlap syndrome. Am J Gastroenterol 2009; 104(6): 1420-5.
31. Granito A, Yang WH, Muratori L, Lim MJ, Nakajima A, Ferri S, et al. PML nuclear body component Sp140 is a novel autoantigen in primary biliary cirrhosis. Am J Gastroenterol 2010; 105(1): 125-31.
32. Vergani D, Bogdanos DP. Positive markers in AMA-negative PBC. Am J Gastroenterol 2003; 98(2): 241-3.
33. Smyk D, Cholongitas E, Kriese S, Rigopoulou EI, Bogdanos DP. Primary biliary cirrhosis: family stories. Autoimmune Dis 2011; 11: 1-11.
34. Leung PS, Coppel RL, Ansari A, Munoz S, Gershwin ME. Antimitochondrial antibodies in primary biliary cirrhosis. Semin Liver Dis 1997; 17: 61-9.
35. Rigopoulou EI, Davies ET, Bogdanos DP, Liaskos C, Mytilinaiou M, Koukoulis GK, et al. Antimitochondrial antibodies of immunoglobulin G3 subclass are associated with a more severe disease course in primary biliary cirrhosis. Liver Int 2007; 27: 1226-31.
36. Butler P, Hamilton-Miller J, Baum H, Burroughs AK. Detection of M2 antibodies in patients with recurrent urinary tract infection using an ELISA and purified PBC specific antigens. Evidence for a molecular mimicry mechanism in the pathogenesis of primary biliary cirrhosis? Biochem Mol Biol Int 1995; 35: 473-85.
37. Butler P, Valle F, Burroughs AK. Mitochondrial antigens and antibodies in primary biliary cirrhosis. Postgrad Med J 1991; 67: 790-7.
38. Muratori L, Muratori P, Granito A, Ferrari R, Veronesi L, Lenzi M, et al. The Western immunoblotting pattern of anti-mitochondrial antibodies is independent of the clinical expression of primary biliary cirrhosis. Dig Liver Dis 2005; 37: 108-12.
39. Degott C, Zafrani ES, Callard P, Balkau B, Poupon RE, Poupon R. Histopathological study of primary biliary cirrhosis and the effect of ursodeoxycholic acid treatment on histology progression. Hepatology 1999; 29: 1007-12.
40. Kaplan MM, Poupon R. Treatment with immunosuppressives in patients with primary biliary cirrhosis who fail to respond to ursodiol. Hepatology 2009; 50: 652.
41. Poupon R. Treatment of primary biliary cirrhosis with ursodeoxycholic Acid, budesonide and fibrates. Dig Dis 2011; 29: 85-8.
42. Poupon R, Poupon RE. Treatment of primary biliary cirrhosis. Baillieres Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol 2000; 14: 615-28.
43. Rabahi N, Chretien Y, Gaouar F, Wendum D, Serfaty L, Chazouilleres O, et al. Triple therapy with ursodeoxycho lic acid, budesonide and mycophenolate mofetil in patients with features of severe primary biliary cirrhosis not responding to ursodeoxycholic acid alone. Gastroenterol Clin Biol 2010; 34: 283-7.
44. Burroughs AK, Leandro G, Goulis J. Ursodeooxycholic acid for primary biliary cirrhosis. J Hepatol 2001; 34: 352-3.
45. Tsochatzis EA, Gurusamy KS, Gluud C, Burroughs AK. Ursodeoxycholic acid and primary biliary cirrhosis: EASL and AASLD guidelines. J Hepatol 2009; 51: 1084-5. author reply 1085-6.
46. Manousou P, Arvaniti V, Tsochatzis E, Isgro G, Jones K, Shirling G, et al. Primary biliary cirrhosis after liver transplantation: influence of immunosuppression and human leukocyte antigen locus disparity. Liver Transpl 2010; 16: 64-73.
47. Mackay IR, Whittingham S, Fida S, Myers M, Ikuno N, Gershwin ME, et al. The peculiar autoimmunity of primary biliary cirrhosis. Immunol Rev 2000; 174: 226-37.
48. Gershwin ME, Mackay IR. The causes of primary biliary cirrhosis: Convenient and inconvenient truths. Hepatology 2008; 47: 737-45.
49. Hirschfield GM, Heathcote EJ, Gershwin ME. Pathogenesis of cholestatic liver disease and therapeutic approaches. Gastroenterology 2010; 139: 1481-96.
50. Hirschfield GM, Liu X, Han Y, Gorlov IP, Lu Y, Xu C, et al. Variants at IRF5-TNPO3, 17q12-21 and MMEL1 are associated with primary biliary cirrhosis. Nat Genet 2010; 42: 655-7.
51. Invernizzi P. Human leukocyte antigen in primary biliary cirrhosis: An old story now reviving. Hepatology 2011; 54: 714-23.
52. Invernizzi P, Miozzo M, Battezzati PM, Bianchi I, Grati FR, Simoni G, et al. Frequency of monosomy X in women with primary biliary cirrhosis. Lancet 2004; 363: 533-5.
53. Invernizzi P, Selmi C, Poli F, Frison S, Floreani A, Alvaro D, et al. Human leukocyte antigen polymorphisms in Italian primary biliary cirrhosis: a multicenter study of 664 patients and 1992 healthy controls. Hepatology 2008; 48: 1906-12.
54. Liu X, Invernizzi P, Lu Y, Kosoy R, Bianchi I, Podda M, et al. Genome-wide meta-analyses identify three loci associated with primary biliary cirrhosis. Nat Genet 2010; 42: 658-60.
55. Longhi MS, Hussain MJ, Bogdanos DP, Quaglia A, Mieli-Vergani G, Ma Y, et al. Cytochrome P450IID6-specific CD8 T cell immune responses mirror disease activity in autoimmune hepatitis type 2. Hepatology 2007; 46: 472-84.
56. Longhi MS, Ma Y, Bogdanos DP, Cheeseman P, Mieli-Vergani G, Vergani D. Impairment of CD4(+)CD25(+) regulatory T-cells in autoimmune liver disease. J Hepatol 2004; 41: 31-7.
57. Longhi MS, Ma Y, Mitry RR, Bogdanos DP, Heneghan M, Cheeseman P, et al. Effect of CD4+ CD25+ regulatory Tcells on CD8 T-cell function in patients with autoimmune hepatitis. J Autoimmun 2005; 25: 63-71.
58. Mells GF, Floyd JA, Morley KI, Cordell HJ, Franklin CS, Shin SY, et al. Genome-wide association study identifies 12 new susceptibility loci for primary biliary cirrhosis. Nat Genet 2011; 43: 329-32.
59. Vergani D, Bogdanos DP, Baum H. Unusual suspects in primary biliary cirrhosis. Hepatology 2004; 39: 38-41.
60. Selmi C, Invernizzi P, Keeffe EB, Coppel RL, Podda M, Rossaro L, et al. Epidemiology and pathogenesis of primary biliary cirrhosis. J Clin Gastroenterol 2004; 38: 264-71.
61. Watanabe N, Takashimizu S, Shiraishi K, Kagawa T, Nishizaki Y, Mine T, et al. Primary biliary cirrhosis with multinucleated hepatocellular giant cells: implications for pathogenesis of primary biliary cirrhosis. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2006; 18: 1023-7.
62. Hirschfield GM, Liu X, Xu C, Lu Y, Xie G, Gu X, et al. Primary biliary cirrhosis associated with HLA, IL12A, and IL12RB2 variants. N Engl J Med 2009; 360: 2544-55.
63. Bogdanos DP, Baum H, Butler P, Rigopoulou EI, Davies ET, Ma Y, et al. Association between the primary biliary cirrhosis specific anti-sp100 antibodies and recurrent urinary tract infection. Dig Liver Dis 2003; 35: 801-5.
64. Bogdanos DP, Baum H, Grasso A, Okamoto M, Butler P, Ma Y, et al. Microbial mimics are major targets of crossreactivity with human pyruvate dehydrogenase in primary biliary cirrhosis. J Hepatol 2004; 40: 31-9.
65. Bogdanos DP, Baum H, Gunsar F, Arioli D, Polymeros D, Ma Y, et al. Extensive homology between the major immunodominant mitochondrial antigen in primary biliary cirrhosis and Helicobacter pylori does not lead to immunological cross-reactivity. Scand J Gastroenterol 2004; 39: 981-7.
66. Bogdanos DP, Baum H, Sharma UC, Grasso A, Ma Y, Burroughs AK, et al. Antibodies against homologous microbial caseinolytic proteases P characterise primary biliary cirrhosis. J Hepatol 2002; 36: 14-21.
67. Bogdanos DP, Baum H, Vergani D, Burroughs AK. The role of E. coli infection in the pathogenesis of primary biliary cirrhosis. Dis Markers 2010; 29: 301-11.
68. Bogdanos DP, Choudhuri K, Vergani D. Molecular mimicry and autoimmune liver disease: virtuous intentions, malign consequences. Liver 2001; 21: 225-32.
69. Bogdanos DP, Pares A, Baum H, Caballeria L, Rigopoulou EI, Ma Y, et al. Disease-specific cross-reactivity between mimicking peptides of heat shock protein of Mycobacterium gordonae and dominant epitope of E2 subunit of pyruvate dehydrogenase is common in Spanish but not British patients with primary biliary cirrhosis. J Autoimmun 2004; 22: 353-62.
70. Bogdanos DP, Mieli-Vergani G, Vergani D. Autoantibodies and their antigens in autoimmune hepatitis. Semin Liver Dis 2009; 29: 241-53.
71. Bogdanos DP, Gilbert D, Bianchi I, Leoni S, Mitry RR, Ma Y, et al. Antibodies to soluble liver antigen and alpha-enolase in patients with autoimmune hepatitis. J Autoimmune Dis 2004; 1: 4.
72. Baum H. Mitochondrial antigens, molecular mimicry and autoimmune disease. Biochim Biophys Acta 1995; 1271: 111-21.
73. Burroughs AK, Butler P, Sternberg MJ, Baum H. Molecular mimicry in liver disease. Nature 1992; 358: 377-8.
74. Burroughs AK, Rosenstein IJ, Epstein O, Hamilton-Miller JM, Brumfitt W, Sherlock S. Bacteriuria and primary biliary cirrhosis. Gut 1984; 25: 133-7.
75. Butler P, Hamilton-Miller JM, McIntyre N, Burroughs AK. Natural history of bacteriuria in women with primary biliary cirrhosis and the effect of antimicrobial therapy in symptomatic and asymptomatic groups. Gut 1995; 36: 931-4.
76. Butler P, Valle F, Hamilton-Miller JM, Brumfitt W, Baum H, Burroughs AK. M2 mitochondrial antibodies and urinary rough mutant bacteria in patients with primary biliary cirrhosis and in patients with recurrent bacteriuria. J Hepatol 1993; 17: 408-14.
77. Burroughs AK, Biagini M, McCormick PA, Rolles K. Liver transplantation and primary biliary cirrhosis. Postgrad Med J 1989; 65: 553-8.
78. Morreale M, Tsirigotis M, Hughes MD, Brumfitt W, McIntyre N, Burroughs AK. Significant bacteriuria has prognos tic significance in primary biliary cirrhosis. J Hepatol 1989; 9: 149-58.
79. Rosenstein IJ, Hazlehurst GR, Burroughs AK, Epstein O, Sherlock S, Brumfitt W. Recurrent bacteriuria and primary biliary cirrhosis: ABO blood group, P1 blood group, and secretor status. J Clin Pathol 1984; 37: 1055-8.
80. Smyk D, Mytilinaiou MG, Rigopoulou EI, Bogdanos DP. PBC triggers in water reservoirs, coal mining areas and waste disposal sites: from Newcastle to New York. Dis Markers 2010; 29: 337-44.
81. Smyk D, Rigopoulou EI, Baum H, Burroughs AK, Vergani D, Bogdanos DP. Autoimmunity and Environment: Am I at risk? Clin Rev Allergy Immunol 2011.
82. Corpechot C, Chretien Y, Chazouilleres O, Poupon R. Demographic, lifestyle, medical and familial factors associated with primary biliary cirrhosis. J Hepatol 2010; 53: 162-9.
83. Corpechot C, Gaouar F, Chretien Y, Johanet C, Chazouilleres O, Poupon R. Smoking as an Independent Risk Factor of Liver Fibrosis in Primary Biliary Cirrhosis. J Hepatol 2011.
84. Gershwin ME, Selmi C, Worman HJ, Gold EB, Watnik M, Utts J, et al. Risk factors and comorbidities in primary biliary cirrhosis: a controlled interview-based study of 1032 patients. Hepatology 2005; 42: 1194-202.
85. Parikh-Patel A, Gold EB, Worman H, Krivy KE, Gershwin ME. Risk factors for primary biliary cirrhosis in a cohort of patients from the United States. Hepatology 2001; 33: 16-21.
86. Prince MI, Ducker SJ, James OF. Case-control studies of risk factors for primary biliary cirrhosis in two United Kingdom populations. Gut 2010; 59: 508-12.
87. Liang Y, Yang Z, Zhong R. Smoking, family history and urinary tract infection are associated with primary biliary cirrhosis: A meta-analysis. Hepatol Res 2011; 41: 572-8.
88. Berta L, Frairia R, Fortunati N, Fazzari A, Gaidano G. Smoking effects on the hormonal balance of fertile women. Horm Res 1992; 37: 45-8.
89. Bijl M, Horst G, Limburg PC, Kallenberg CG. Effects of smoking on activation markers, Fas expression and apoptosis of peripheral blood lymphocytes. Eur J Clin Invest 2001; 31: 550-3.
90. Churg A, Zay K, Shay S, Xie C, Shapiro SD, Hendricks R, et al. Acute cigarette smoke-induced connective tissue breakdown requires both neutrophils and macrophage metalloelastase in mice. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2002; 27: 368-74.
91. Cozen W, Diaz-Sanchez D, James Gauderman W, Zadnick J, Cockburn MG, Gill PS, et al. Th1 and Th2 cytokines and IgE levels in identical twins with varying levels of cigarette consumption. J Clin Immunol 2004; 24: 617-22.
92. Dev A, Patel K, Conrad A, Blatt LM, McHutchison JG. Relationship of smoking and fibrosis in patients with chronic hepatitis C. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2006; 4: 797-801.
93. Kannel WB, D'Agostino RB, Belanger AJ. Fibrinogen, cigarette smoking, and risk of cardiovascular disease: insights from the Framingham Study. Am Heart J 1987; 113: 1006-10.
94. Petitti DB, Kipp H. The leukocyte count: associations with intensity of smoking and persistence of effect after quitting. Am J Epidemiol 1986; 123: 89-95.
95. Reiman RM, Thompson RW, Feng CG, Hari D, Knight R, Cheever AW, et al. Interleukin-5 (IL-5) augments the progression of liver fibrosis by regulating IL-13 activity. Infect Immun 2006; 74: 1471-9.
96. Seagrave J, Barr EB, March TH, Nikula KJ. Effects of cigarette smoke exposure and cessation on inflammatory cells and matrix metalloproteinase activity in mice. Exp Lung Res 2004; 30: 1-15.
97. Soldin OP, Makambi KH, Soldin SJ, O'Mara DM. Steroid hormone levels associated with passive and active smoking. Steroids 2011.
98. Sugimoto R, Enjoji M, Nakamuta M, Ohta S, Kohjima M, Fukushima M, et al. Effect of IL-4 and IL-13 on collagen production in cultured LI90 human hepatic stellate cells. Liver Int 2005; 25: 420-8.
99. Tsochatzis E, Papatheodoridis GV, Manolakopoulos S, Tiniakos DG, Manesis EK, Archimandritis AJ. Smoking is associated with steatosis and severe fibrosis in chronic hepatitis C but not B. Scand J Gastroenterol 2009; 44: 752-9.
100. Whetzel CA, Corwin EJ, Klein LC. Disruption in Th1/Th2 immune response in young adult smokers. Addict Behav 2007; 32: 1-8.
101. Zein CO. Clearing the smoke in chronic liver diseases. Hepatology 2010; 51: 1487-90.
102. Howel D, Fischbacher CM, Bhopal RS, Gray J, Metcalf JV, James OF. An exploratory population-based case-control study of primary biliary cirrhosis. Hepatology 2000; 31: 1055-60.
103. Bataller R. Time to ban smoking in patients with chronic liver diseases. Hepatology 2006; 44: 1394-6.
104. Corrao G, Lepore AR, Torchio P, Valenti M, Galatola G, D'Amicis A, et al. The effect of drinking coffee and smoking cigarettes on the risk of cirrhosis associated with alcohol consumption. A case-control study. Provincial Group for the Study of Chronic Liver Disease. Eur J Epidemiol 1994; 10: 657-64.
105. El-Zayadi AR. Heavy smoking and liver. World J Gastroenterol 2006; 12: 6098-101.
106. Hezode C, Lonjon I, Roudot-Thoraval F, Mavier JP, Pawlotsky JM, Zafrani ES, et al. Impact of smoking on histological liver lesions in chronic hepatitis C. Gut 2003; 52: 126-9.
107. Keller AZ. Cirrhosis of the liver, alcoholism and heavy smoking associated with cancer of the mouth and pharynx. Cancer 1967; 20: 1015-22.
108. Klatsky AL, Armstrong MA. Alcohol, smoking, coffee, and cirrhosis. Am J Epidemiol 1992; 136: 1248-57.
109. Zein CO, Beatty K, Post AB, Logan L, Debanne S, McCullough AJ. Smoking and increased severity of hepatic fibrosis in primary biliary cirrhosis: A cross validated retrospective assessment. Hepatology 2006; 44: 1564-71.
110. Kaviratne M, Hesse M, Leusink M, Cheever AW, Davies SJ, McKerrow JH, et al. IL-13 activates a mechanism of tissue fibrosis that is completely TGF-beta independent. J Immunol 2004; 173: 4020-9.
111. Pessione F, Ramond MJ, Njapoum C, Duchatelle V, Degott C, Erlinger S, et al. Cigarette smoking and hepatic lesions in patients with chronic hepatitis C. Hepatology 2001; 34: 121-5.
112. Costenbader KH, Karlson EW. Cigarette smoking and autoimmune disease: what can we learn from epidemiology? Lupus 2006; 15: 737-45.
113. Sopori M. Effects of cigarette smoke on the immune system. Nat Rev Immunol 2002; 2: 372-7.
114. Shan M, Cheng HF, Song LZ, Roberts L, Green L, Hacken-Bitar J, et al. Lung myeloid dendritic cells coordinately induce TH1 and TH17 responses in human emphysema. Sci Transl Med 2009; 1: 4-10.
115. Stefanska AM, Walsh PT. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: evidence for an autoimmune component. Cell Mol Immunol 2009; 6: 81-6.
116. Tsoumakidou M, Tsiligianni I, Tzanakis N. Mechanisms of altered cell immunity and cytotoxicity in COPD. Curr Drug Targets 2011; 12: 450-9.
117. Majori M, Corradi M, Caminati A, Cacciani G, Bertacco S, Pesci A. Predominant TH1 cytokine pattern in peripheral blood from subjects with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1999; 103(3 Pt. 1): 458-62.
118. Harada K, Van de Water J, Leung PS, Coppel RL, Ansari A, Nakanuma Y, et al. In situ nucleic acid hybridization of cytokines in primary biliary cirrhosis: predominance of the Th1 subset. Hepatology 1997; 25: 791-6.
119. Ala A, Stanca CM, Bu-Ghanim M, Ahmado I, Branch AD, Schiano TD, et al. Increased prevalence of primary biliary cirrhosis near Superfund toxic waste sites. Hepatology 2006; 43: 525-31.