Nutrition update for the ultraendurance athlete

Current Sports Medicine Reports

Volumn 10, Issue 6, 2011, Pages 330-339

  Getzin, Andrew R ^a   Milner, Cindy ^a   La Face, Karen M ^b  

^a Cayuga Medical Center   (United States)

^b Family Medicine   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CAFFEINE; CARBOHYDRATE; SODIUM;

ARTICLE; ATHLETE; CALORIC INTAKE; DIET SUPPLEMENTATION; DIETARY INTAKE; ENDURANCE SPORT; EXERCISE INTENSITY; FATIGUE; FLUID INTAKE; GASTROINTESTINAL SYMPTOM; GLUCOSE METABOLISM; GLUCOSE OXIDATION; MUSCLE CRAMP; NUTRITIONAL HEALTH; OXYGEN CONSUMPTION; TASK PERFORMANCE;

ATHLETES; CAFFEINE; DIETARY CARBOHYDRATES; DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS; HUMANS; NUTRITION ASSESSMENT; PHYSICAL ENDURANCE; RESEARCH; SODIUM, DIETARY; SPORTS MEDICINE;

EID: 82955187060     PISSN: 1537890X     EISSN: 15378918     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1249/JSR.0b013e318237fcdf     Document Type: Article

References (106)

1. Akerstrom TCA, Fischer CP, Plomgaar P, et al. Glucose ingestion during endurance training does not alter adaptation. J. Appl. Physiol. 2009; 106:1771-9.
2. Applegate EA. Nutritional considerations for ultraendurance performance. Int. J. Sport Nutr. 1991; 1:118-26.
3. Armstrong LE, Casa DJ, Maresh CM, et al. Caffeine, fluid-electrolyte balance, temperature regulation, and exerciseYheat tolerance. Exerc. Sport Sci. Rev. 2007; 35:13540.
4. Arnaud MJ. The pharmacology of caffeine. Prog. Drug Res. 1987; 31: 273-313. (Pubitemid 18031077)
5. Baron B, Moullan F, Deruelle F, et al. The role of emotions on pacing strategies and performance in middle and long duration sport events. Br. J. Sports Med. 2011; 45:511-7.
6. Beelen M, Berghuis J, Bonaparte B, et al. Carbohydrate mouth rinsing in the fed state: Lack of enhancement of time-trial performance. Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab. 2009; 19:400-9.
7. Bell DG, McLellan TN. Exercise and endurance 1, 3, and 6 hours after caffeine ingestion in users and nonusers. J. Appl. Physiol. 2002; 93: 1227-34.
8. Bergeron MF. Heat cramps: Fluid and electrolyte challenges during tennis in the heat. J. Sci. Med. Sport. 2003; 6:19-27. (Pubitemid 36548001)
9. Bergeron MF. Muscle cramps during exercise-is it fatigue or electrolyte deficit? Curr. Sports Med. Rep. 2008; 7:S50-5.
10. Bergstrom J, Hermansen L, Holtman E, et al. Diet, muscle glycogen and physical performance. Acta Physiol. Scand. 1967; 71:140-50.
11. Binkley HM, Beckett J, Casa DJ, et al. National Athletic Trainers' Association position statement: Exertional heat illnesses. J. Athl. Train. 2002; 37:329-43.
12. Deleted in proof.
13. Buskirk ER, Iampietro PF, Bass DE. Work performance after dehydration: Effects of physical conditioning and heat acclimatization. J. Appl. Physiol. 1958; 12:189-94.
14. Carter JM, Jeukendrup AE, Jones DA. The effect of carbohydrate mouth rinse on 1-h cycle time trial performance. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2004; 36:2107-11. (Pubitemid 39612853)
15. Carter JM, Jeukendrup AE, Mann CH. The effect of glucose infusion on glucose kinetics during a 1-h time trial. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2004; 36:1543-1550. (Pubitemid 39202623)
16. Clark N, Tobin J, Ellis C. Feeding the ultraendurance athlete: Practical tips and a case study. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 1992; 92:1258-62.
17. Coggan AR, Coyle EF. Reversal of fatigue during prolonged exercise by carbohydrate infusion or ingestion. J. Appl. Physiol. 1987; 63: 2388-95. (Pubitemid 18024862)
18. Convertino VA, Armstrong LE, Coyle EF, et al. American College of Sports Medicine position stand. Exercise and fluid replacement. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 1996; 28:i-vii. (Pubitemid 126501238)
19. Costill DL, Bowers R, Branam G, et al. Muscle glycogen utilization during prolonged exercise on successive days. J. Appl. Physiol. 1971; 31:834-8.
20. Costill DL, Dalsky GP, Fink WJ. Effects of caffeine ingestion on metabolism and exercise performance. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 1978; 10:155-8. (Pubitemid 9080718)
21. Cox GR, Clark SA, Cox AJ, et al. Daily training with high carbohydrate availability increases exogenous carbohydrate oxidation during endurance cycling. J. Appl. Physiol. 2010; 109:126-34.
22. Cox GR, Desbrow B, Montgomery PG, et al. Effects of different protocols on caffeine intake on metabolism and endurance performance. J. Appl. Physiol. 2002; 23:990-9. (Pubitemid 34919672)
23. Coyle EF, Coggan AR, Hemmert MK, et al. Muscle glycogen utilization during prolonged strenuous exercise when fed carbohydrate. J. Appl. Physiol. 1986; 61:165-72. (Pubitemid 16055673)
24. Craig FN, Cummings EG. Dehydration and muscular work. J. Appl. Physiol. 1966; 21:670-4.
25. Currell K, Jeukendrup AE. Superior performance with ingestion of multiple transportable carbohydrates. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2008; 40:275-81.
26. Davis JM, Zhao Z, Stock HS, et al. Central nervous system effects of caffeine and adenosine on fatigue. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 2003; 284:R399-404. (Pubitemid 36120156)
27. De Bock K, Derave W, Eijande BO, et al. Effect of training in the fasted state on metabolic responses during exercise with carbohydrate intake. J. Appl. Physiol. 2008; 104:1045-55. (Pubitemid 351507943)
28. Eichner ER. Heat cramps in sports. Curr. Sports Med. Rep. 2008;7:178-9.
29. Eichner ER. Sports medicine pearls and pitfalls: Java jolt. Curr. Sports Med. Rep. 2009; 8:42-3.
30. Fallon KE, Broad E, Thompson MW, et al. Nutritional and fluid intake in a 100-km ultramarathon. Int. J. Sport Nutr. 1998; 8:24-35.
31. Ferraris RP, Diamond J. Regulation of intestinal sugar transport. Physiol. Rev. 1997; 77:257-302. (Pubitemid 27068805)
32. Fordtran JS, Saltin B. Gastric emptying and intestinal absorption during prolonged severe exercise. J. Appl. Physiol. 1967; 23:331-5.
33. Fredholm BB. On the mechanism of action of theophylline and caffeine. Acta Med. Scand. 1985; 217:149-53. (Pubitemid 15144050)
34. Gisolfi CV, Copping JR. Thermal effects of prolonged treadmill exercise in the heat. Med. Sci. Sports. 1974; 6:108-13.
35. Glace BW, Murphy CA, McHugh P. Food and fluid intake and disturbances in gastrointestinal and mental function during an ultramarathon. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab. 2002; 12:414-27.
36. Glace BW, Murphy CA, McHugh MW. Food intake and electrolyte status of ultramarathoners competing in extreme heat. J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 2002; 21:553-9. (Pubitemid 36026267)
37. Graham TE. Caffeine and exercise: Metabolism, endurance and performance. Sports Med. 2001; 31:785-807. (Pubitemid 32846190)
38. Graham TE, Spriet LL. Performance and metabolic responses to a high caffeine dose during prolonged exercise. J. Appl. Physiol. 1991; 71:2292-8.
39. Graham TE, Spriet LL. Metabolic, catecholamine, and exercise performance responses to various doses of caffeine. J. Appl. Physiol. 1995; 78:867-74.
40. Hansen AK, Fischer CP, Plomgaard P, et al. Skeletal muscle adaptation: Training twice every second day vs. training once daily. J. Appl. Physiol. 2005; 98:93-9. (Pubitemid 40041234)
41. Hargreaves M, Costill DL, Coggan A, et al. Effect of carbohydrate feedings on muscle glycogen utilization and exercise performance. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 1984; 16:219-22. (Pubitemid 14050562)
42. Hawley JA, Burke LM. Carbohydrate availability and training adaptations: Effects on cell metabolism. Exerc. Sport Sci. Rev. 2010; 38: 152-60.
43. Hawley JA, Hopkins WG. Aerobic glycolytic and anaerobic lipolytic power systems. A new paradigm with implications for endurance and ultraendurance events. Sports Med. 1995; 19:240-50.
44. Hew-Butler TD, Sharwood K, Collins M. Sodium supplementation is not required to maintain serum sodium concentrations during an Ironman triathlon. Br. J. Sports Med. 2006; 40:255-9. (Pubitemid 43384747)
45. Hulston CJ, Venables MC, Mann CH et al. Training with low muscle glycogen enhances fat metabolism in well-trained cyclists. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2010; 42:2046-55.
46. Ivy JL, Costill DL, Fink WJ, et al. Influence of caffeine and carbohydrate feeding on endurance performance. Med. Sci. Sports. 1979; 11:6-11. (Pubitemid 9251607)
47. Deleted in proof.
48. Deleted in proof.
49. Jentjens RLPG, Achten J, Jeukendrup AE. High oxidation rates from combined carbohydrates ingested during exercise. Med. Sci. Sports. Exerc. 2004; 36:1551-8. (Pubitemid 39202624)
50. Jentjens RLPG, Moseley L, Waring RH. Oxidation of combined ingestion of glucose and fructose during exercise. J. Appl. Physiol. 2004; 96:1277-84. (Pubitemid 38392661)
51. Jentjens RLPG, Jeukendrup AE. High rates of exogenous carbohydrate oxidation from a mixture of glucose and fructose ingested during prolonged cycling exercise. Br. J. Nutr. 2005; 93:485-92.
52. Jeukendrup AE, Brauns F, Wagenmakers AJ, et al. Carbohydrateelectrolyte feedings improve 1 h time trial cycling performance. Int. J. Sports Med. 1997; 18:125-9.
53. Jeukendrup AE, Chambers ES. Oral carbohydrate sensing and exercise performance. Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care. 2010; 13:447-51.
54. Jeukendrup AE, Jentjens RLPG. Oxidation of carbohydrate feedings during prolonged exercise: Current thoughts, guidelines, and directions for future research. Sports Med. 2000; 29:407-24. (Pubitemid 30392021)
55. Jeukendrup AE, Moseley L, Mainwaring GI, et al. Exogenous carbohydrate oxidation during ultraendurance exercise. J. Appl. Physiol. 2006; 100:1134-41.
56. Kao WF, Shyuo CL, Yang XW, et al. Athletic performance and serial weight changes during 12- and 24-hour ultra-marathons. Clin. J. Sport Med. 2008; 18:155-8.
57. Karlsson J, Saltin B. Diet, muscle glycogen, and endurance performance. J. Appl. Physiol. 1971; 31:203-6.
58. Keisler BD, Armsey TD. Caffeine as an ergogenic aid. Curr. Sports Med. Rep. 2006; 5:215-9.
59. Kimber NE, Ross JJ, Mason SL, et al. Energy balance during an Ironman triathlon in male and female triathletes. Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab. 2002; 12:47-62.
60. Kreider RB. Physiological considerations of ultraendurance performance. Int. J. Sport Nutr. 1991; 1:3-27.
61. Kruseman M, Bucher S, Bovier M, et al. Nutrient intake and performance during a mountain marathon: An observational study. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 2005; 94:151-7. (Pubitemid 41166763)
62. Lambert EV, St Clair Gibson A, Noakes TD. Complex system model of fatigue: Integrative homeostatic control of peripheral physiological systems during exercise in humans. Br. J. Sports Med. 2005; 39: 52-62. (Pubitemid 40136611)
63. Laurent D, Schneider KE, Prusaczyk WK, et al. Effects of caffeine on muscle glycogen utilization and the neuroendocrine axis during exercise. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2000; 85:2170-5. (Pubitemid 32269240)
64. Laursen PB, Suriano R, Quod MJ, et al. Core temperature and hydration status during an Ironman triathlon. Br. J. Sports Med. 2006; 40:320-5.
65. Lindeman AK. Nutrient intake of an ultraendurance cyclist. Int. J. Sport Nutr. 1991; 1:79-85.
66. Morton JP, Croft L, Bartlett JD, et al. Reduced carbohydrate availability does not modulate training-induced heat shock protein adaptations but does upregulate oxidative enzyme activity in human skeletal muscle. J. Appl. Physiol. 2009; 106:1513-21.
67. Noakes TD. Physiological models to understand exercise fatigue and the adaptations that predict or enhance athletic performance. Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports. 2000; 10:123-45.
68. Noakes T. Fluid replacement during marathon running. Clin. J. Sport Med. 2003; 13:309-18. (Pubitemid 37210527)
69. Noakes TD. Changes in body mass alone explain almost all of the variance in the serum sodium concentrations during prolonged exercise. Has commercial influence impeded scientific endeavour? Br. J. Sports Med. 2011; 45:475-7.
70. Nybo L, Pedersen K, Christensen B, et al. Impact of carbohydrate supplementation during endurance training on glycogen storage and performance. Acta Physiol. (Oxf.). 2009; 197:117-27.
71. Pasman WJ, Van Baak MA, Jeukendrup AE, et al. The effect of different dosages of caffeine on endurance performance time. Int. J. Sports Med. 1995; 16:225-30.
72. Pedersen DJ, Lessard SJ, Coffey VG, et al. High rate of muscle glycogen resynthesis after exhaustive exercise when carbohydrate is coingested with caffeine. J. Appl. Physiol. 2008; 105:7-13.
73. Pichan G, Gauttan RK, Tomar OS, et al. Effect of primary hypohydration on physical work capacity. Int. J. Biometeorol. 1988; 32: 176-80.
74. Pugh LG, Corbett JL, Johnson RH. Rectal temperatures, weight losses, and sweat rates in marathon running. J. Appl. Physiol. 1967; 23: 347-52.
75. Rauch HG, Hawley JA, Noakes TD, et al. Fuel metabolism during ultraendurance exercise. Pflugers Arch-Eur J Physiol. 1998; 436:211-9.
76. Rehrer NJ, Beckers EJ, Brouns F, et al. Effects of dehydration on gastric emptying and gastrointestinal distress while running. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 1990; 22:790-5.
77. Rigato I, Blarasin L, Kette F. Severe hypokalemia in 2 young bicycle riders due to massive caffeine intake. Clin. J. Sport Med. 2010; 20:128-30.
78. Robins A. Nutritional recommendations for competing in the Ironman triathlon. Curr. Sports Med. Rep. 2007; 6:241-8. (Pubitemid 47235579)
79. Romijn JA, Coyle EF, Sidossis LS, et al. Regulation of endogenous fat and carbohydrate metabolism in relation to exercise intensity and duration. Am. J. Physiol. 1993; 265:E380-91. (Pubitemid 23296552)
80. Rowell LB, Blackmon JR, Bruce Ra. Indocyanine-green clearance and estimated hepatic blood flow during mild exercise in upright man. J. Clin. Invest. 1964; 43:1677-90.
81. Saltin B. Aerobic and anaerobic work capacity after dehydration. J. Appl. Physiol. 1964; 19:1114-8.
82. Schwellnus MP. Cause of exercise associated muscle cramps (EAMC) altered neuromuscular control, dehydration, or electrolyte depletion? Br. J. Sports Med. 2009; 43:401-8.
83. Schwellnus MP, Derman EW, Noakes TD. Aetiology of skeletal muscle 'cramps' during exercise: A novel hypothesis. J. Sports Sci. 1997; 15: 277-85. (Pubitemid 27309796)
84. Schwellnus MP, Drew N, Collins M. Increased running speed and previous cramps rather than dehydration or serum sodium changes predict exercise-associated muscle cramping: A prospective cohort study in 210 Ironman triathletes. Br. J. Sports Med. 2011; 45:650-6.
85. Schwellnus MP, Nico J, Laubscher R, et al. Serum electrolyte concentrations and hydration status are not associated with exercise associated muscle cramping (EAMC) in distance runners. Br. J. Sports Med. 2004; 38:488-92. (Pubitemid 39044034)
86. Shang G, Collins M, Schwellnus MP. Factors associated with a selfreported history of exercise-associated muscle craps in inronman triathletes: A case-control study. Clin. J. Sport Med. 2011; 21:204-10.
87. Sharwood KA, Collins M, Goedecke JH, et al. Weight change, sodium levels, and performance in the South African Ironman triathlon. Clin. J. SportMed. 2002; 12:391-9. (Pubitemid 35477440)
88. Sharwood KA, Collins M, Goedecke JH, et al. Weight changes, medical complications, and performance during an Ironman triathlon. Br. J. Sports Med. 2004; 38:718-24. (Pubitemid 39611552)
89. Speedy DB, Thompson JMD, Rodgers I, et al. Oral salt supplementation during ultradistance exercise. Clin. J. Sport Med. 2002; 12:279-84. (Pubitemid 35178270)
90. Stofan JR, Horswill CA, Lacambra M, et al. Acute change in blood sodium during two-a-day training in professional football players. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2007; 39:S15.
91. Stofan JR, Zachwieja JJ, Horswill CA, et al. Sweat and sodium losses in NCAA football players: A precursor to heat cramps? Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab. 2005; 15:541-52.
92. Stray-Gundersen J, Levine BD. ''Living high and training low'' can improve sea level performance in endurance athletes. Br. J. Sports Med. 1999; 33:150-4.
93. Sulzer NU, Schwellnus MP, Noakes TD. Serum electrolytes in Ironman triathletes with exercise associated muscle cramping. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2005; 37: 1081-5. (Pubitemid 40981667)
94. Tam N, Nolte HW, Noakes TD. Changes in total body water content during running races of 21.1 km and 56 km in athletes drinking ad libitum. Clin. J. Sport Med. 2011; 21:218-25.
95. Valentine V. The importance of salt in the athlete's diet. Curr. Sports Med. Rep. 2007; 6:237-40. (Pubitemid 47235578)
96. Van Proeyen K, Szlufcik K, Nielens H, et al. Beneficial metabolic adaptations due to endurance exercise training in the fasted state. J. Appl. Physiol. 2011; 110:236-45.
97. Varro' V, Blaho' G, Jung I, et al. Effect of decreased local circulation on the absorptive capacity of a small-intestine loop in the dog. Am. J. Dig. Dis. 1965; 10:170-7.
98. Deleted in proof.
99. Wallis GA, Rowlands DS, Shaw C, et al. Oxidation of combined ingestion of maltodextrins and fructose during exercise. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2005; 37:426-32. (Pubitemid 40354452)
100. Williams JH, Mager M, Jacobsen Ed. Relationship of mesenteric blood flow on intestinal absorption of carbohydrates. J. Lab. Clin. Med. 1964; 63:853-63.
101. Wyndham CH, Strydom NB. The danger of inadequate water intake during marathon running. S. Afr. Med. J. 1969; 43:893-6.
102. Yeo WK, McGee SL, Carey AL, et al. Acute signaling responses to intense endurance training commenced with low or normal muscle glycogen. Exp. Physiol. 2010; 95:351-8.
103. Yeo WK, Paton CD, Garnham AP, et al. Skeletal muscle adaptation and performance responses to once a day versus twice every second day endurance training regimen. J. Appl. Physiol. 2008; 105:1462-70.
104. Yeo SE, Jentjens RLPG, Wallis GA, et al. Caffeine increases exogenous carbohydrate oxidation during exercise. J. Appl. Physiol. 2005; 99: 844-50. (Pubitemid 41214493)
105. Zaryski C, Smith DJ. Training principles and issues for ultra-endurance athletes. Curr. Sports Med. Rep. 2005; 4:165-70.
106. Deleted in proof.