Muscle protein turnover in endurance training: A review

International Journal of Sports Medicine

Volumn 32, Issue 12, 2011, Pages 905-911

  Seene, Teet ^a   Kaasik, P ^a   Alev, K ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TARTU   (Estonia)

Author keywords

endurance training; oxidative capacity; protein turnover; skeletal muscle

Indexed keywords

MUSCLE PROTEIN; REACTIVE OXYGEN METABOLITE;

ADAPTATION; ENDURANCE; HUMAN; METABOLISM; MITOCHONDRION; OXIDATIVE STRESS; REVIEW; SARCOMERE; SKELETAL MUSCLE; TIME;

ADAPTATION, PHYSIOLOGICAL; HUMANS; MITOCHONDRIA; MUSCLE PROTEINS; MUSCLE, SKELETAL; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PHYSICAL ENDURANCE; REACTIVE OXYGEN SPECIES; SARCOMERES; TIME FACTORS;

EID: 82655168765     PISSN: 01724622     EISSN: 14393964     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1055/s-0031-1284339     Document Type: Review

References (110)

1. Abbiss C R, Lauren P B. Models to explain fatigue during prolonged endurance cycling. Sports Med: 2005; 35 865 898 (Pubitemid 41464512)
2. Alev K, Kaasik P, Pehme A, Aru M, Parring A-M, Elart A, Seene T. Physiological role of myosin light and heavy chain isoforms in fast- and slow-twitch muscles: effect of exercise. Biol Sport: 2009; 26 215 234
3. Allen D L, Monke S R, Talmadge R J, Roy R R, Edgerton V R. Plasticity of myonuclear number in hypertrophied and atrophied mammalian skeletal muscle fibres. J Appl Physiol. 1995; 78 1969 1976
4. Allen D L, Roy R R, Edgerton V R. Myonuclear domains in muscle adaptation and disease. Muscle Nerve: 1999; 22 1350 1360 (Pubitemid 29468418)
5. Andreson J, Schjerling P, Saltin B. Muscle genes and athletic performance. Sci Am: 2000; 283 48 55
6. Armstrong R B, Warren G L, Warren J A. Mechanisms of exercise-induced muscle fibre injury. Sports Med: 1991; 12 184 207
7. Arslan S, Erdem S, Kilin K, Sivri A, Tan E, Haselik H Z. Free radical changes in rat muscle tissue after exercise. Rheumatol Int: 2001; 3 109 112 (Pubitemid 32250122)
8. Aschenbach W G, Sakamoto K, Goodyear L J. Sadenosine monophosphate- activated protein kinase, metabolism and exercise. Sports Med: 2004; 34 91 103 (Pubitemid 38283127)
9. Baldwin K M, Haddad F. Effects of different activity and inactivity paradigms on myosin heavy chain gene expression in striated muscle. J Appl Physiol: 2001; 90 345 357 (Pubitemid 32038537)
10. Baldwin K M, Haddad F. Skeletal muscle plasticity: cellular and molecular responses to altered physical activity paradigms. Am J Phys Med Rehabil: 2002; 81 S40 S51 (Pubitemid 35192965)
11. Bechet D, Tassa A, Taillandier D, Cornbaret L, Attaix D. Lysosomal proteolysis in skeletal muscle. Int J Biochem Cell Biol: 2005; 37 2098 2114 (Pubitemid 41206824)
12. Bekedam M A, van Beek-Harmsen B J, Boonstra A, van Mechelen W, Visser F C, van der Laarse W J. Maximum rate of oxygen consumption related to succinate dehydrogenase activity in skeletal muscle fibres of chronic heart failure patients and controls. Clin Physiol Funct Imaging: 2003; 23 337 343 (Pubitemid 37455611)
13. Blomstrand E, Rdegran G, Saltin B. Maximum rate of oxygen uptake by human skeletal muscle in relation to maximal activities of enzymes in the Krebs cycle. J Physiol: 1997; 501 455 460 (Pubitemid 27280819)
14. Bodine S C, Stitt T N, Gonzalez M, Kline W O, Stover G L, Bauerlein R, Zlotchenko E, Scrimgeour A, Lawrence J C, Glass D J, Yancopoulos G D. Akt/mTOR pathway is a crucial regulator of skeletal muscle hypertrophy and can prevent muscle atrophy in vivo. Nat Cell Biol: 2001; 3 1014 1019 (Pubitemid 34428747)
15. Bottinelli R. Functional heterogeneity of mammalian single muscle fibres: do myosin isoforms tell the whole story? Pflugers Arch: 2001; 443 6 17 (Pubitemid 33070885)
16. Bottinelli R, Betto R, Schiaffino S, Reggiani C. Unloaded shortening velocity and myosin heavy chain and alkali light chain isoform composition in rat skeletal muscle fibres. J Physiol: 1994; 478 341 349 (Pubitemid 24232204)
17. Caiozzo V J, Baker M J, Huang K, Chou H, Wu Y Z, Baldwin K M. Single-fibre heavy chain polymorphism: how many patterns and what proportions? Am J Physiol: 2003; 285 R570 R580 (Pubitemid 37040565)
18. Caiozzo V J, Haddad F, Baker M, Mc Cue S, Baldwin K M. MHC polymorphism in rodent plantaris muscle: effects of mechanical overload and hypothyroidism. Am J Physiol: 2000; 278 C709 C717 (Pubitemid 30211303)
19. Carraro F, Stuart C A, Hartl W H, Rosenblatt J, Wolfe R R. Effect of exercise and recovery on muscle protein synthesis in human subjects. Am J Physiol: 1990; 259 E470 E476 (Pubitemid 20340361)
20. Cheek D, Holt A, Hill D, Talbert J. Skeletal muscle cell mass and growth A review: the concept of the DNA unit. Pediatr Res: 1971; 3 312 328
21. Coffey V G, Hawley J A. The molecular bases of training adaptation. Sports Med: 2007; 37 737 763 (Pubitemid 47347390)
22. Costill D L, Bowers L, Branam G, Sparks K. Muscle glycogen utilization during prolonged exercise on successive days. J Appl Physiol: 1971; 31 834 838
23. Davids K, Baker J. Genes environment and sport performance: why the nature-nature dualism is no longer relevant. Sports Med: 2007; 37 961 980 (Pubitemid 350085747)
24. Degens H, Anderson R K, Alway S E. Capillarization in skeletal muscle of rats with cardiac hypertrophy. Med Sci Sports Exerc: 2002; 34 258 266 (Pubitemid 34132030)
25. Diffee G M, Haddad F, Herrick R E, Baldwin K M. Control of myosin heavy chain expression: interaction of hypothyroidism and hindlimb suspension. Am J Physiol: 1991; 261 1099 1106
26. Di Meo S, Venditti P. Mitochondria in exercise-induced oxidative stress. Biol Signals Recept: 2001; 10 125 140 (Pubitemid 32171163)
27. Dirks A, Leeuwenburgh C. The role of apoptosis in age-related skeletal muscle atrophy. Sports Med: 2005; 35 473 483 (Pubitemid 41002968)
28. Earl C A, Laurent G J, Everett A W, Bounin C M, Sparrow M P. Turnover rates of muscle protein in cardiac and skeletal muscles of dog, flow, rat and mouse: turnover rate related to muscle function. Aust J Exp Biol Med Sci: 1978; 56 265 277 (Pubitemid 9004944)
29. Edgerton V R, Roy R R. Regulation of skeletal muscle fibre size, shape and function. J Biomech: 1991; 24 123 133
30. Flck M. Functional, structural and molecular plasticity of mammalian skeletal muscle in response to exercise stimuli. J Exp Biol: 2006; 209 2239 2248
31. Flck M, Hoppeler H. Molecular basis of skeletal muscle plasticity from gene to form and function. Rev Physiol Biochem Pharmacol: 2003; 146 159 216
32. Glaser B W, You G, Zhang M, Medler S. Relative proportions of hybrid fibres are unaffected by 6 weeks of running exercise in mouse skeletal muscles. Exp Physiol: 2010; 95 211 221
33. Gregorevic P, Plant D R, Stupka N, Lynch G S. Changes in contractile activation characteristics of rat fast and slow skeletal muscle fibres during regeneration. J Physiol: 2004; 558 549 560 (Pubitemid 39117601)
34. Gullen M, Landon D. The normal ultrastructure of skeletal muscle. In: Walton J, Karpati G, Hilton-Jones D. eds Disorders of Voluntary Muscle. New York Churchill Livingstone: 1994; 87 137
35. Hardie D G, Sakamoto K. AMPK: a key sensor of fuel and energy status in skeletal muscle. Physiology: 2006; 21 48 60 (Pubitemid 43752517)
36. Harris B A. The influence of endurance and resistance exercise on muscle capillarization in the elderly: a review. Acta Physiol Scand: 2005; 185 89 97 (Pubitemid 41392352)
37. Hayashibara T, Miyanishi T. Binding of the amino-terminal region of myosin alkali 1 light chain to actin and its effect on actin-myosin interaction. Biochemistry: 1994; 33 12821 12827 (Pubitemid 24352872)
38. Herrero A, Barja G. Localization of the site of oxygen radical generation inside the complex I of heart and nonsynaptic brain mammalian mitochondria. J Bioenerg Biomembr: 2000; 32 609 615 (Pubitemid 32204237)
39. Hickson R C, Rosenkoetter M A. Separate turnover of cytochrome c and myoglobin in the red types of skeletal muscle. Am J Physiol: 1981; 241 C140 C144
40. Holloszy J O, Booth F W. Biochemical adaptation to endurance exercise in muscle. Annu Rev Physiol: 1976; 38 273 291
41. Hood D A. Contractile activity-induced mitochondrial biogenesis in skeletal muscle. J Appl Physiol: 2001; 90 1137 1157 (Pubitemid 32171405)
42. Hood D A. Mechanisms of exercise-induced mitochondrial biogenesis in skeletal muscle. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab: 2009; 34 465 472
43. Hk P, Li X, Sleep J, Hughes S, Larsson L. In vitro motility speed of slow myosin extracted from single soleus fibres from young and old rats. J Physiol: 1999; 520 463 471 (Pubitemid 29511910)
44. Hoppeler H, Billeter R. Conditions for oxygen and substrate transport in muscles in exercising mammals. J Exp Biol: 1991; 160 263 283
45. Hoppeler H, Howald H, Conley K, Lindstedt S, Classen H, Vock P, Weibel E. Endurance training in humans: aerobic capacity and structure of skeletal muscle. J Appl Physiol: 1985; 59 320 327 (Pubitemid 15249855)
46. Iaia F M, Hellsten Y, Nielsen J J, Fernstrm M, Sahlin K, Bangsbo J. Four weeks of speed endurance training reduces energy expenditure during exercise and maintains muscle oxidative capacity despite a reduction in training volume. J Appl Physiol: 2009; 106 73 80
47. Iaia F M, Thomassen M, Kolding H, Gunnarsson T, Wendell J, Rostgaard T, Nordsborg N, Krustrup P, Nybo L, Hellsten Y, Bangsbo J. Reduced volume but increased training intensity elevate muscle Na+/K+ pump alpha 1-subunit and NHE1 expression as well as short-term work capacity in humans. Am J Physiol: 2008; 294 R966 R974 (Pubitemid 351346976)
48. Kadaja L, Eimre M, Paju K, Roosimaa M, Pdramgi T, Kaasik P, Pehme A, Orlova E, Mudist M, Peet N, Piirsoo A, Seene T, Gellerich F N, Seppet E K. Impaired oxidative phosphorylation in overtrained rat myocardium. Exp Clin Cardiol: 2010; 15 e116 e127
49. Karas R H, Williams R S. Molecular mechanisms of skeletal muscle adaptations to exercise. Trends Cardiovasc Med: 1991; 341 346
50. Kayar S R, Banchero N. Volume density and distribution of mitochondria in myocardial growth and hypertrophy. Respir Physiol: 1987; 70 275 286 (Pubitemid 18045499)
51. Kohn T A, Essen-Gustavsson B, Myburgh K H. Exercise pattern influences skeletal muscle hybrid fibres of runners and nonrunners. Med Sci Sports Exerc: 2007; 39 1977 1984 (Pubitemid 350073361)
52. Larsson L, Moss R L. Maximum velocity of shortening in relation to myosin isoform composition in single fibres from human skeletal muscles. J Physiol: 1993; 472 595 614 (Pubitemid 24015023)
53. Laursen P B. Training for intense exercise performance: high-intensity or high-volume training? Scand J Med Sci Sports: 2010; Suppl 2 1 10 doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0838.2010.01184.x
54. Laursen P, Jenkins D. The scientific basis for big high-intensity interval training: optimising training programmes and maximising performance in highly trained endurance athletes. Sports Med: 2002; 32 53 73 (Pubitemid 34093709)
55. Lee S J, McPherron A C. Regulation of myostatin activity and muscle growth. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA: 2001; 98 9306 9311 (Pubitemid 32743912)
56. Ljubicic V, Joseph A M, Saleem A, Uguccioni G, Collu-Marchese M, Lai R Y, Nguyen L M, Hood D A. Transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulation of mitochondrial biogenesis in skeletal muscle: effects of exercise and aging. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2010; 1800 223 234
57. Mc Comas A J. Skeletal Muscle Form and Function. Champaign Human Kinetics: 1996
58. Millward D, Waterlow J. Effect of nutrition on protein turnover in skeletal muscle. Fed Proc: 1978; 37 2283 2290 (Pubitemid 8373660)
59. Molnar A M, Alves A A, Pereira-da-Silva L, Macedo D V, Dabbeni-Sala F. Evaluation by blue native polyacrylamide electrophoresis colorimetric staining of the effects of physical exercise on the activities of mitochondrial complexes in rat muscle. Braz J Med Biol Res: 2004; 37 939 947 (Pubitemid 39029112)
60. Muller F L, Liu Y, Van Remmen H. Complex III releases superoxide to both sides of the inner mitochondrial membrane. J Biol Chem: 2004; 279 49064 49073 (Pubitemid 39625788)
61. Muramatsu T, Okumura J. Whole-body protein turnover in chicks at early stages of growth. J Nutr: 1985; 115 483 490 (Pubitemid 15083805)
62. Nader G A. Concurrent strength and endurance training: from molecules to man. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2006; 38 1965 1970 (Pubitemid 44707802)
63. Noakes T D. Physiological models to understand exercise fatigue and the adaptations that predict or enhance athletic performance. Scand J Med Sci Sports: 2000; 10 123 145
64. Paddon-Jones D, Rasmussen B B. Dietary protein recommendations and the prevention of sarcopenia. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care: 2009; 12 86 90
65. Pette D. Historical perspectives: Plasticity of mammalian skeletal muscle. J Appl Physiol: 2001; 90 1119 1124
66. Pette D. The adaptative potential of skeletal muscle fibres. Can J Appl Physiol: 2002; 27 423 448
67. Pette D. Training effects on the contractile apparatus. Acta Physiol Scand: 1998; 162 367 376 (Pubitemid 28121416)
68. Pette D, Staron R S. Transitions of muscle fibre phenotypic profiles. Histochem Cell Biol: 2001; 115 359 372 (Pubitemid 32467749)
69. Powers S K, Jackson M J. Exercise-induced oxidative stress: cellular mechanisms and impact on muscle force production. Physiol Rev: 2008; 88 1243 1276
70. Ratel S, Duche P, Williams G A. Muscle fatigue during high-intensity exercise in children. Sports Med: 2006; 36 1031 1065 (Pubitemid 44837808)
71. Reichmann H, Wasl R, Simoneau J A, Pette D. Enzyme-activities of fatty acid oxidation and the respiratory chain in chronically stimulated fast-twitch muscle of the rabbit. Plugers Arch: 1991; 418 572 574
72. Rennie M, Tipton K. Protein and amino acid metabolism during and after exercise and the effects of nutrition. Annu Rev Nutr: 2000; 20 457 483
73. Rivero J L, Talmadge R J, Edgerton V R. Interrelationships of myofibrillar ATPase activity and metabolic properties of myosin heavy chain-based fibre types in rat skeletal muscle. Histochem Cell Biol: 1999; 111 277 287 (Pubitemid 29155518)
74. Russ D W, Kent-Braun J A. Is skeletal muscle oxidative capacity decreased in old age? Sports Med: 2004; 34 221 229 (Pubitemid 38534746)
75. Saks V A, Kaambre T, Sikk P, Eimre M, Orlova E, Paju K, Piirsoo A, Appaix F, Kay L, Regitz-Zagrosek V, Fleck E, Seppet E. Intracellular energetics units in red muscle cells. Biochem J: 2001; 356 643 657 (Pubitemid 32532379)
76. Saks V A, Kuznetsov A V, Vendelin M, Guerrero K. Guerrero Kay L, Seppet E K. Functional coupling as a basic mechansim of feedback regulation of cardiac energy metabolism. Mol Cell Biochem: 2004; 256/257 185 199 (Pubitemid 38181244)
77. Salo D, Donovan C, Davies K. HSP 70 and other possible heat schock or oxidative stress proteins are induced in skeletal muscle, heart and liver during exercise. Free Radic Biol Med: 1991; 11 239 246 (Pubitemid 121003919)
78. Schmalbruch H, Lewis D M. Dynamics of nuclei of muscle fibres and connective tissue cells in normal and denervated rat muscles. Muscle Nerve: 2000; 23 617 626 (Pubitemid 30164789)
79. Schreurs VVA M, Boekholt H, Koopmanschap R, Rotterdam W. Relative synthesis rate of individual muscle proteins: a new approach. Neth J Agr Sci: 1985; 33 297 302
80. Schoenheimer R, Ratner S, Rittenberg D. Studies in protein metabolism. VII. The metabolism of tyrosine. J Biol Chem: 1939; 127 333 344
81. Seene T, Alev K. Effect of muscular activity on the turnover rate of actin and myosin heavy and light chains in different types of skeletal muscle. Int J Sports Med: 1991; 12 204 207
82. Seene T, Alev K, Kaasik P, Pehme A. Changes in fast-twitch muscle oxidative capacity and myosin isoforms modulation during endurance training. J Sports Med Phys Fitness: 2007; 47 124 132
83. Seene T, Alev K, Kaasik P, Pehme A, Parring A M. Endurance training: volume dependent adaptational changes in myosin. Int J Sports Med: 2005; 26 815 821 (Pubitemid 41807738)
84. Seene T, Alev K, Pehme A. Effect of muscular activity on the turnover rate of actin and myosin heavy and light chains in different types of skeletal muscle. I. Changes in the turnover rate of myosin and actin during and after single-bout physical activity. Int J Sports Med: 1986; 7 287 290 (Pubitemid 17210857)
85. Seene T, Kaasik P, Alev K, Pehme A, Riso E M. Composition and turnover of contractile proteins in volume-overtrained skeletal muscle. Int J Sports Med: 2004; 25 438 445 (Pubitemid 39222925)
86. Seene T, Kaasik P, Pehme A, Alev K, Riso E M. The effect of glucocorticoids on the myosin heavy chain isoforms turnover in skeletal muscle. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol: 2003; 86 201 206 (Pubitemid 37243998)
87. Seene T, Kaasik P, Umnova M. Structural rearrangements in contractile apparatus and resulting skeletal muscle remodelling: effect of exercise training. J Sports Med Phys Fitness: 2009; 49 410 423
88. Seene T, Umnova M. Relations between the changes in the turnover rate of contractile proteins, activation of satellite cells and ultra-structural response of neuromuscular junctions in the fast-oxidative-glycolytic muscle fibres in endurance trained rats. Basic Appl Myology: 1992; 1 539 546
89. Seene T, Umnova M, Kaasik P. The exercise myopathy. In: Lehmann M, Foster C, Gastmann U, Keizer H, Steinacker J M. eds Overload, Performance Incompetence, and Regeneration in Sport. NY Kluwer Academic, Plenum Publishers: 1999; 119 130
90. Seene T, Umnova M, Kaasik P, Alev K, Pehme A. Overtraining injuries in athletic population. In: Tiidus P M. ed Skeletal Muscle Damage and Repair. Champaign (IL) Human Kinetics: 2008; 173 184 305-307
91. Seppet E K, Eimre M, Anmann T, Seppet E, Peet N, Kmbre T, Paju K, Piirsoo A, Kuznetsov A V, Vendelin M, Gellerich F N, Zierz S, Saks V A. Intracellular energetic units in healthy and diseased hearts. Exp Clin Cardiol: 2005; 10 173 183 (Pubitemid 41227228)
92. Seppet E K, Kaambre T, Sikk P, Tiivel T, Vija H, Tonkonogi M, Sahlin K, Kay L, Appaix F, Braun U, Eimre M, Saks V A. Functional complexes of mitochondria with Ca, Mg ATPases of myofibrils and sarcoplasmic reticulum in muscle cells. Biochim Biophys Acta: 2001; 1504 379 395 (Pubitemid 32201910)
93. Stephenson G M. Hybrid skeletal muscle fibres: a rare or common phenomenon? Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol: 2001; 28 692 702 (Pubitemid 32729101)
94. Stepto N, Martin D, Fallon K, Hawley J. Metabolic demands of intense aerobic interval training in competitive cyclists. Med Sci Sports Exerc: 2001; 33 303 310 (Pubitemid 32142998)
95. Stevens L, Firinga C, Gohlsch B, Bastide B, Mounier Y, Pette D. Effects of unweighting and clenbuterol on myosin light and heavy chains in fast and slow muscles of rat. Am J Physiol: 2000; 279 C1558 C1563
96. Stitt T N, Drujan D, Clarke B A, Panaro F, Timofeyva Y, Kline W O, Gonzalez M, Yancopoulos G D, Glass D J. The IGF-1/PI3K/Akt pathway prevents expression of muscle atrophy-induced ubiquitin ligases by inhibiting FOXO transcription factors. Mol Cell: 2004; 14 395 403 (Pubitemid 38591410)
97. Sweeney H L, Kushmeric M J, Mahuchi K, Sreter F A, Gerery J. Myosin alkali light chain and heavy chain variations correlate with altered shortening velocity of isolated skeletal muscle fibres. J Biol Chem: 1988; 263 9034 9039
98. Swynghedauw B. Developmental and functional adaptation of contractile proteins in cardiac and skeletal muscles. Physiol Rev: 1986; 66 710 771 (Pubitemid 16074022)
99. Tate C A, Bonner H W, Leslie S W. Calcium uptake in skeletal muscle mitochondria. II. The effects of long-term chronic and acute exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol: 1978; 39 117 122 (Pubitemid 9000420)
100. Thayer R, Collins J, Noble E G, Taylor A W. A decade of aerobic endurance training: histological evidence for fibre type transformation. J Sports Med Phys Fitness: 2000; 40 284 289 (Pubitemid 32183378)
101. Thomson D M, Winder W W. AMPK control of fat metabolism in skeletal muscle. Acta Physiol (Oxf): 2009; 196 147 154
102. Tipton K, Wolfe R. Exercise-induced changes in protein metabolism. Acta Physiol Scand: 1998; 162 377 387 (Pubitemid 28121417)
103. Tseng B S, Kasper C E, Edgerton V R. Cytoplasm-to-myonucleus ratios and succinate dehydrogenase activities in adult rat slow and fast muscle fibres. Cell Tissue Res: 1994; 275 39 49 (Pubitemid 24002627)
104. Vendelin M, Berand N, Guerrero K, Andrienko T, Kuznetsov A V, Olivares J, Kay L, Saks V A. Mitochondrial regular arrangement in muscle cells: A crystal-like pattern. Am J Physiol: 2005; 288 C757 C767 (Pubitemid 40229505)
105. van Wessel T, de Haan A, van der Laarse W J. Jaspers RT. The muscle fibre type-fibre size paradox: hypertrophy or oxidative metabolism? Eur J Appl Physiol: 2010; 110 665 694
106. Wada M, Pette D. Relationships between alkali light-chain complement and myosin heavy-chain isoforms in single fast-twitch fibres of rat and rabbit. Eur J Biochem: 1993; 214 157 161 (Pubitemid 23168530)
107. Wahrmann J P, Winand R, Rieu M. Plasticity of skeletal myosin in endurance-trained rats (I). A quantitative study. Eur J Appl Physiol: 2001; 84 367 372 (Pubitemid 32471939)
108. Waterlow J C, Garlick P J, Millward D J. Protein Turnover in Mammalian Tissue and in the Whole Body. Amsterdam North Holland Pub Co: 1978; 804
109. Yeo W K, Paton C D, Garnham A P, Burke L M, Carey A L, Hawley J A. Skeletal muscle adaptation and performance responses to once a day versus twice every second day endurance training regimens. J Appl Physiol: 2008; 105 1462 1470
110. Zimmers T A, Davies M V, Koniaris L G, Haynes P, Esquela A F, Tomkinson K N, McPherron A C, Wolfman N M, Lee S-J. Induction of cachexia in mice by systemically administered myostatin. Science: 2002; 296 1486 1488 (Pubitemid 34553097)