Public safety, individual liberty, and suspect science: Future dangerousness assessments and sex offender laws

Temple Law Review

Volumn 83, Issue 3, 2011, Pages 697-756

  Hamilton, Melissa ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH CAROLINA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 80955143368     PISSN: 08998086     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (125)

1. See Dannye Holley, The Supreme Courts: Did September 11th Accelerate Their Sanctioning the Constitutionality of Criminalizing Suspicion!, 7 PIERCE L. REV. 39,60-63 (2008).
2. See Eric S. Janus & Robert A. Prentky, Sexual Predator Laws: A Two-Decade Retrospective, 21 FED. SENT'G REP. 90,95 (2008)
3. See ERIC S. JANUS, FAILURE TO PROTECT: AMERICA'S SEXUAL PREDATOR LAWS AND THE RISE OF THE PREVENTIVE STATE 5 (2006)
4. Daniel F. Montaldi, The Logic of Sexually Violent Predator Status in the United States of America, 2 SEXUAL OFFENDER TREATMENT 1 (2007), http://www.sexual-offender-treatment.org/index.php?id=57&type=123.
5. See Joseph L. Lester, Off to Elba! The Legitimacy of Sex Offender Residence and Employment Restrictions, 40 AKRON L. REV. 339,345 (2007)
6. See Eric S. Janus & Emily A. Polachek, A Crooked Picture: Re-framing the Problem of Child Sexual Abuse, 36 WM. MITCHELL L. REV. 142, 147-48 (2009)
7. Meaghan Kelly, Lock them Up- And Throw Away the Key: The Preventive Detention of Sex Offenders in the United States and Germany, 39 GEO. J. INT'L L. 551, 553 (2008)
8. Wayne A. Logan, Criminal Justice Federalism and National Sex Offender Policy, 6 OHIO ST. J. CRIM. L. 51, 60 (2008)
9. Bela August Walker, Essay, Deciphering Risk: Sex Offender Statutes and Moral Panic in a Risk Society, 40 U. BALT. L. REV. 183,184 (2010)
10. Cm. FOR SEX OFFENDER MGMT., LEGISLATIVE TRENDS IN SEX OFFENDER MANAGEMENT 1 (2008), available at http://www.csom.org/pubs/legislative-trends.pdf.
11. See generally Corey Rayburn Yung, The Emerging Criminal War on Sex Offenders, 45 HARV. C.R.-C.L. L. REV. 435 (2010) (analogizing war against sex offenders to war on drugs).
12. Laura Mansnerus, Stoking 'Moral Panic' Over Sex Offenders, N.Y. TIMES, May 29, 2005, at 14NJ-2
13. CHRIS GREER, SEX CRIME AND THE MEDIA: SEX OFFENDING AND THE PRESS IN A DIVIDED SOCIETY 185-86 (2003)
14. See also Carissa Byrne Hessick, Disentangling Child Pornography from Child Sex Abuse, 88 WASH. U. L. REV. 853,887-88 (2011)
15. See e.g., Adam Walsh Child Protection Act of 2006, Pub. L. No. 109-248, 120 Stat. 587
16. See also Catherine L. Carpenter, Legislative Epidemics: A Cautionary Tale of Criminal Laws That Have Swept the Country, 58 BUFF. L. REV. 1, 23 (2010)
17. Wayne A. Logan, Megan's Laws as a Case Study in Political Stasis, 61 SYRACUSE L. REV. 371,373-80 (2011)
18. Michael Vitiello, Punishing Sex Offenders: When Good Intentions Go Bad, 40 ARIZ. ST. L.J. 651, 676 (2008)
19. Lisa L. Sample & Colleen Kadleck, Sex Offender Laws: Legislators' Accounts of the Need for Policy, 19 CRIM. JUST. POL'Y REV. 40,57 (2008).
20. MICHAEL R. RAND, U.S. DEP'T OF JUSTICE, CRIMINAL VICTIMIZATION, 2008, at 2 (2009), available at http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/content/pub/pdf/cv08.pdf.
21. DAVID FINKELHOR ET AL., CRIMES AGAINST CHILDREN RESEARCH CTR., UPDATED TRENDS IN CHILD MALTREATMENT,2008,at 1 fig.l (2010),http://www.unh.edu/ccrc/pdf/ CV203-Updated%20Trends%20in%20Child%20Maltreatment%202008-8-6-10.pdf
22. See Megan Magers et al., An Exploration of the Sex Offender Specialization and Violence Nexus, 6 SW. J. OF CR1M. JUST. 133, 141 (2009)
23. Leonore M.J. Simon, The Myth of Sex Offender Specialization: An Empirical Analysis, 23 NEW ENO. J. ON CRIM. & Civ. CONFINEMENT 387, 401 (1997)
24. Jill S. Levenson et al., Public Perceptions About Sex Offenders and Community Protection Policies, 7 ANALYSES OF Soc. ISSUES & PUB. POL'Y 137, 153-54 (2007)
25. See also Ruth E. Mann et al., Assessing Risk for Sexual Recidivism: Some Proposals on the Nature of Psychologically Meaningful Risk Factors, 22 SEXUAL ABUSE 191, 192 (2010)
26. Erica Beecher-Monas & Edgar Garcia-Rill, Genetic Predictions of Future Dangerousness: Is There a Blueprint for Violence?, 69 LAW & CONTEMP. PROBS. 301, 317-18(2006).
27. See John Douard, Sex Offender as Scapegoat: The Monstrous Other Within, 53 N.Y.L. SCH. L. REV. 31, 38-39 (2009)
28. Matthew V. Daley, A Flawed Solution to the Sex Offender Situation in the United States: The Legality of Chemical Castration for Sex Offenders, 5 IND. HEALTH L. REV. 87 (2008)
29. John Matthew Fabian, The Risky Business of Conducting Risk Assessments for Those Already Civilly Committed as Sexually Violent Predators, 32 WM. MITCHELL L. REV. 81,96 (2005).
30. KATHY GOOKIN, WASH. STATE INST, FOR PUB. POLICY, COMPARISON OF STATE LAWS AUTHORIZING INVOLUNTARY COMMITMENT OF SEXUALLY VIOLENT PREDATORS: 2006 UPDATE, REVISED 1 (2007), available at http//www.wsipp.wa.gov/rptfiles/07-08-1101.pdf
31. See Monica Davey & Abby Goodnough, Doubts Rise as States Hold Sex Offenders After Prison, N.Y. TIMES, Mar. 4, 2007, at 1-1
32. Eric. S. Janus & Robert A. Prentky, Forensic Use of Actuarial Risk Assessment with Sex Offenders: Accuracy, Admissibility and Accountability, 40 AM. CRIM. L. REV. 1443, 1447 (2003)
33. Amber Leigh Bagley, Comment, "An Era of Human Zoning": Banishing Sex Offenders from Communities Through Residence and Work Restrictions, 57 EMORY L.J. 1347,1348 (2008).
34. Cassie Dallas, Comment, Not in My Backyard: The Implications of Sex Offender Residency Ordinances in Texas and Beyond, 41 TEX. TECH L. REV. 1235,1243 (2009).
35. See Shawndra Jones, Note, Setting Their Record Straight: Granting Wrongly Branded Individuals Relief from Sex Offender Registration, 41 COLUM. J.L. & Soc. PROBS. 479, 496-97 (2008)
36. See, e.g., Fross v. Cnty. of Allegheny, 612 F.Supp.2d 651, 660 (W.D. Pa. 2009)
37. Asmara Tekle-Johnson, In the Zone: Sex Offenders and the Ten-Percent Solutions, 94 IOWA L. REV. 607, 621 (2009)
38. Kari White, Note, Where Will They Go? Sex Offender Residency Restrictions as Modern-Day Banishment, 59 CASE W. RES. L. REV. 161, 168-69 (2008)
39. Caleb Durling, Comment, Never Going Home: Does It Make Us Safer? Does It Make Sense?: Sex Offenders, Residency Restrictions, and Reforming Risk Management Law, 97 J. CRIM. L. & CRIMINOLOGY 317,323(2006).
40. See Lindsay A. Wagner, Comment, Sex Offender Residency Restrictions: How Common Sense Places Children at Risk, 1 DREXEL L. REV. 175, 176 (2009)
41. John A. Fennel, Punishment by Another Name: The Inherent Overreaching in Sexually Dangerous Person Commitments, 35 NEW ENG. J. ON CRIM. & Civ. CONFINEMENT 37, 61-62 (2009)
42. BERNARD E. HARCOURT, AGAINST PREDICTION: PROFILING, POLICING, AND PUNISHING IN AN ACTUARIAL AGE 188(2007).
43. Yoav Sapir, Against Prevention? A Response to Harcourt's Against Prediction on Actuarial and Clinical Predictions and the Faults of Incapacitation, 33 LAW & Soc. INQUIRY 253, 260-261 (2008) (book review).
44. CTR. FOR SEX OFFENDER MGMT., RECIDIVISM OF SEX OFFENDERS 5 (2001) [hereinafter CSOM ON RECIDIVISM], available at http://www.csom.org/pubs/ recidsexof.pdf.
45. PATRICK A. LANGAN ET AL., U.S. DEP'T OF JUSTICE, RECIDIVISM OF SEX OFFENDERS RELEASED FROM PRISON IN 1994, at 1 (2003), http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/ content/pub/pdf7rsorp94.pdf.
46. RHIANA KOHL ET AL., URBAN INST., MASSACHUSETTS RECIDIVISM STUDY: A CLOSER LOOK AT RELEASES AND RETURNS TO PRISON 14 (2008), available at http://www.urban.org/UploadedPDF/411657-massachusctts-recidivism.pdf.
47. GENEVA ADKINS ET AL., IOWA DEP'T OF HUMAN RIGHTS, THE IOWA SEX OFFENDER REGISTRY AND RECIDIVISM 4,10(2000), http://www.iowa.gov/dhr/cjjp/images/pdf01- pub/SexOfiender Report.pdf
48. ROBERT BARNOSKJ, WASH. STATE INST, FOR PUB. POLICY, SEX OFFENDER SENTENCING IN WASHINGTON STATE: SEX OFFENDER RISK LEVEL CLASSIFICATION TOOL AND RECIDIVISM 2 (2006), available at http://www.wsipp.wa.gov/rptfiles/06-01-1204. pdf
49. Timothy Fortney et al., Myths and Facts about Sexual Offenders: Implications for Treatment and Public Policy, 2 SEXUAL OFFENDER TREATMENT 1,4 (2007), http://www.sexual-offender-treatment.org/index. php?id=55&type=123
50. See Jeslyn A. Miller, Comment, Sex Offender Civil Commitment: The Treatment Paradox, 98 CALIF. L. REV. 2093, 2108-22 (2010)
51. HOWARD N. SNYDER, U.S. DEP'T OF JUSTICE, SEXUAL ASSAULT OF YOUNG CHILDREN AS REPORTED TO LAW ENFORCEMENT: VICTIM, INCIDENT, AND OFFENDER CHARACTERISTICS 10 (2000), available at http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/content/pub/pdf/saycrle.pdf.
52. James Vess, Sex Offender Risk Assessment: Consideration of Human Rights in Community Protection Legislation, 13 LEGAL & CRIMINOLOGICAL PSYCHOL. 245,246 (2008). 81.
53. Jill S. Levenson & Leo P. Cotter, The Effect of Megan's Law on Sex Offender Reintegration, 21 J. CONTEMP. CRIM. JUST. 49, 54, 61 (2005)
54. Rachel Bandy, Measuring the Impact of Sex Offender Notification on Community Adoption of Protective Behaviors, 10 CRIMINOLOGY & PUB. POL'Y 237,255-56 (2011)
55. Amy L. Anderson & Lisa L. Sample, Public Awareness and Action Resulting from Sex Offender Community Notification Laws, 19 CRIM. JUST. POL'Y REV. 371,388 (2008).
56. Jeffrey C. Sandler et a!., Does a Watched Pot Boil? A Time-Series Analysis of New York State's Sex Offender Registration and Notification Law, 14 PSYCHOL. PUB. POL'Y & L. 284, 297 (2008)
57. JEFFERY T. WALKER ET AL., ARK. CRIME INFO. CTR., THE INFLUENCE OF SEX OFFENDER REGISTRATION AND NOTIFICATION LAWS IN THE UNITED STATES 15 (2004)
58. Elizabeth J. Letourneau & Kevin S. Armstrong, Recidivism Rates for Registered and Nonregistered Juvenile Sexual Offenders, 20 SEXUAL ABUSE 393,400 (2008)
59. Richard Tewksbury & Wesley G. Jennings, Assessing the Impact of Sex Offender Registration and Community Notification on Sex-Offending Trajectories, 37 CRIM. JUST. & BEHAV. 570, 579 (2010)
60. Ron Wilson, Geographic Research Suggests Offender Residency Laws May Not Work, GEOGRAPHY & PUB. SAFETY, May 2009, at 11,11, available at http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/maps/gps-bulletin-v2il.pdf.
61. See also Richard Tewksbury, Exile at Home: The Unintended Collateral Consequences of Sex Offender Residency Restrictions, 42 HARV. C.R.-C.L. L. REV. 531, 534 (2007)
62. Elizabeth Ehrhardt Mustaine & Richard Tewksbury, Residential Relegation of Registered Sex Offenders, 36 AM. J. CRIM. JUST. 44, 54-55 (2011)
63. BARBARA K. SCHWARTZ & HENRY R. CELLINI, THE SEX OFFENDER: NEW INSIGHTS, TREATMENT INNOVATIONS AND LEGAL DEVELOPMENTS xvii (1997).
64. Christopher Uggen & Heather R. Hlavka, Does Stigmatizing Sex Offenders Drive Down Reporting Rates? Perverse Effects and Unintended Consequences, 35 N. Kv. L. REV. 347,363 (2008). 90.
65. N. J. Schweitzer & Michael J. Saks, The Gatekeeper Effect: The Impact of Judges' Admissibility Decisions on the Persuasiveness of Expert Testimony, 15 PSYCHOL. PUB. POL'Y & L. 1, 13 (2009)
66. See Laurens Walker & John Monahan, Social Frameworks: A New Use of Social Science in Law, 73 VA. L. REV. 559, 582-83 (1987)
67. See JOHN MONAHAN & LAURENS WALKER, SOCIAL SCIENCE IN LAW: CASES AND MATERIALS 398 (6th ed. 2006)
68. Andrew E. Taslitz, Myself Alone: Individualizing Justice Through Psychological Character Evidence, 52 MD. L. REV. 1,75 (1993).
69. Alice B. Lustre, Annotation, Post-Dmbeft Standards for Admissibility of Scientific and Other Expert Evidence in State Courts, 90 A.L.R.5th 453, § 2, at 481 (2001).
70. Andrew R. Stolfi, Why Illinois Should Abandon Frye's General Acceptance Standard for the Admission of Novel Scientific Evidence, 78 CHL-KENT L. REV. 861, 876 n. 110 (2003) .
71. See James Aaron George, Note, Offender Profiling and Expert Testimony: Scientifically Valid or Glorified Results?, 61 VAND. L. REV. 221, 233-35 (2008)
72. See also Erica Beecher-Monas & Edgar Garcia-Rill, Danger at the Edge of Chaos: Predicting Violent Behavior in a to-Daubert World, 24 CARDOZO L. REV. 1845, 1854 (2003)
73. ANDRE A. MOENSSENS ET AL., SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE IN CIVIL AND CRIMINAL CASES 12 (5th ed. 2007).
74. See also Erica Beecher-Monas, The Epistemology of Prediction: Future Dangerousness Testimony and Intellectual Due Process, 60 WASH. & LEE. L. REV. 353, 361, 371 (2003)
75. Mitzi Dorland & Daniel Krauss, The Danger of Dangerousness in Capital Sentencing: Exacerbating the Problem of Arbitrary and Capricious Decision- Making, 29 LAW & PSYCHOL. REV. 63, 102-03 (2005)
76. See, e.g., John Monahan, A Jurisprudence of Risk Assessment: Forecasting Harm Among Prisoners, Predators, and Patients, 92 VA. L. REV. 391,408-09 (2006)
77. See JOHN MONAHAN ET AL., RETHINKING RISK ASSESSMENT: THE MACARTHUR STUDY OF MENTAL DISORDER AND VIOLENCE 142 (2001)
78. See Kevin S. Douglas & Jennifer L. Skeem, Violence Risk Assessment: Gelling Specific About Being Dynamic, 11 PSYCHOL. PUB. POL'Y & L. 347, 352 (2005)
79. Fred S. Berlin et al., The Use of Actuarials at Civil Commitment Hearings to Predict the Likelihood of Future Sexual Violence, 15 SEXUAL ABUSE 377, 378 (2003).
80. R. KARL HANSON, THE DEVELOPMENT OF A BRIEF ACTUARIAL RISK SCALE FOR SEXUAL OFFENSE RECIDIVISM 14(1997).
81. See generally R. Karl Hanson & David Thornton, Improving Risk Assessments for Sex Offenders: A Comparison of Three Actuarial Scales, 24 LAW & HUM. BEHAV. 119 (2000)
82. R. Karl Hanson et al., Predicting Recidivism Amongst Sexual Offenders: A Multi-Site Study of Static-2002,34 LAW & HUM. BEHAV. 198,198 (2010).
83. ANDREW HARRIS ET AL., STATIC-99 CODING RULES REVISED 3 (2003), available at http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/res/cor/rep/-fl/2003-03-stc-cde-eng.pdf
84. See generally Brian R. Abbott, Applicability of the New Static-99 Experience Tables in Sexually Violent Predator Risk Assessments, 4 SEXUAL OFFENDER TREATMENT 1 (2009), http://www.sexual-offender-treatment.org/index.php? id=73&type =123. 177.
85. Stephen D. Hart, Actuarial Risk Assessment: Commentary on Berlin et al., 15 SEXUAL ABUSE 383, 385 (2003)
86. Grant T. Harris et al., A Multisite Comparison of Actuarial Risk Instruments for Sex Offenders, 15 PSYCHOL. ASSESSMENT 413 (2003)
87. Jan Looman, Comparison of Two Risk Assessment Instruments for Sexual Offenders, 18 SEXUAL ABUSE 193 (2006).
88. Stephen D. Hart et al., Precision of Actuarial Risk Assessment Instruments: Evaluating the 'Margins of Error' of Group v. Individual Predictions of Violence, 190 BRIT. J. PSYCHIATRY (supp. 49) s60, s60 (2007) (discussing flaws with actuarial risk assessment instruments in general). 184.
89. See LEAM A. CRAIG ET AL., ASSESSING RISK IN SEX OFFENDERS: A PRACTITIONER'S GUIDE 55 (2008)
90. Andrew John Rawson Harris & R. Karl Hanson, Clinical, Actuarial and Dynamic Risk Assessment of Sexual Offenders: Why Do Things Keep Changing?, 16 I. SEXUAL AGGRESSION 296, 300-01 (2010)
91. John Matthew Fabian, To Catch a Predator, and Then Commit Him for Life: Sexual Offender Risk Assessment-Part Two, CHAMPION, Mar. 2009, at 32,37. 187.
92. R. Karl Hanson & David Thornton, STATIC-99: Improving Actuarial Risk Assessments for Sex Offenders 6-8 (1999), http://www.courtdiagnostic.com/ Static%2099-02.pdf. 198.
93. R. Karl Hanson & Phillip D. Howard, Commentary, Individual Confidence Intervals Do Not Inform Decision-Makers About the Accuracy of Risk Assessment Evaluations, 34 LAW & HUM. BEHAV. 275, 275 (2010)
94. David DeMatteo & John F. Edens, The Role and Relevance of the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised in Court: A Case Law Survey of U.S. Courts (1991-2004), 12 PSYCHOL. PUB. POL'Y & L. 214,215 (2006).
95. See JACOB COHEN, STATISTICAL POWER ANALYSIS FOR THE BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES 79-80 (2d ed. 1988)
96. R. KARL HANSON & KELLY MORTON-BOURGON, PREDICTORS OF SEXUAL RECIDIVISM: AN UPDATED META-ANALYSIS 32 (2004).
97. R. KARL HANSON & KELLY E. MORTON-BOURGON, THE ACCURACY OF RECIDIVISM RISK ASSESSMENTS FOR SEXUAL OFFENDERS: A META-ANALYSIS 31 (2007).
98. Howard E. Barbaree et al., Evaluating the Predictive Accuracy of Six Risk Assessment Instruments for Adult Sex Offenders, 28 CRIM. JUST. & BEHAV. 490,510
99. See R. Karl Hanson et al., Predicting Recidivism Amongst Sexual Offenders: A Multi-site Study of STATIC-2002, 34 LAW & HUM. BEHAV. 198, 198-99 (2010).
100. R. Karl Hanson & Kelly E. Morton-Bourgon, The Accuracy of Recidivism Risk Assessments for Sexual Offenders: A Mela-Analysis of 118 Prediction Studies, 21 PSYCHOL. ASSESSMENT 1,4,6 (2009).
101. See also Leslie Helmus, Re-Norming Static-99 Recidivism Estimates: Exploring Base Rate Variability Across Sex Offender Samples 67 (Sept. 2009) (unpublished M.A. thesis, Carleton University), available at http://www.static99.org/pdfdocs/helmus2009-09static-99normsmathesis.pdf
102. See also David Thornton et al., Moving Beyond the Standard Model for Actuarial Assessment for Sexual Offenders, THE FORUM, Summer 2010, at 17, 18-19.
103. R. Karl Hanson, Does STATIC-99 Predict Recidivism in Older Sexual Offenders?, 18 SEXUAL ABUSE 343, at 344 (2006)
104. FBI, Crime in the United States: By Region, Geographic Division, and State, 2006-2007, FBI.GOV, http://www2.fbi.gov/ucr/cius2007/data/table-04-dd. html (last visited Aug. 24,2011).
105. Learn A. Craig et al., Limitations in Actuarial Risk Assessment of Sexual Offenders: A Methodological Note, BRIT. J. FORENSIC PRAC, Feb. 2004, at 16, 18.
106. Tamara Rice Lave, Controlling Sexually Violent Predators: Continued Incarceration at What Cost?, 14 NEW CRIM. L. REV. 213,236-49 (2011).
107. Peter R. Jones et al., Risk Classification and Juvenile Dispositions: What Is the State of the Art?, 79 TEMP. L. REV. 461,495 (2006). 241.
108. See ERICA BEECHER-MONAS, EVALUATING SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: AN INTERDISCIPLINARY FRAMEWORK FOR INTELLECTUAL DUE PROCESS 38-39 (2007)
109. TOM JAGTENBERG, THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF SCIENCE: A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF GOAL DIRECTION, RESEARCH EVOLUTION AND LEGITIMATION 12-40 (1983)
110. Richard Wollert, Low Base Rates Limit Expert Certainty When Current Actuarials Are Used to Identify Sexually Violent Predators: An Application ofBayes's Theorem, 12 PSYCHOL. PUB. POL'Y & L. 56, 58 (2006).
111. Douglas P. Boer, Ethical and Practical Concerns Regarding the Current Status of Sex Offender Risk Assessment, 3 SEXUAL OFFENDER TREATMENT 1,3 (2008), http://www.sexual-offender-treatment.org/index.php?id=64&type=l 23.
112. Pamela R. Blair et al., Is There an Allegiance Effect for Assessment Instruments? Actuarial Risk Assessment as an Exemplar, 15 CLINICAL PSYCHOL.: SCI. & PRAC 346,354 (2008).
113. Scott I. Vrieze & William M. Grove, Predicting Sex Offender Recidivism. I. Correcting for Item Overselection and Accuracy Overestimation in Scale Development. II. Sampling Error-Induced Attenuation of Predictive Validity Over Base Rate Information, 32 L. & HUM. BEHAV. 266, 276 (2008)
114. JOHN MONAHAN, THE CLINICAL PREDICTION OF VIOLENT BEHAVIOR 13-16 (1981)
115. Charles P. Ewing, "Dr. Death" and the Case for an Ethical Ban on Psychiatric and Psychological Predictions of Dangerousness in Capital Sentencing Proceedings, 8 AM. J. L. & MED. 407,418 (1983)
116. See David J. Cooke & Christine Michie, Limitations of Diagnostic Precision and Predictive Utility in the Individual Case: A Challenge for Forensic Practice, 34 LAW & HUM. BEHAV. 259, 269-72 (2010)
117. People v. Thomas, No. C035786,2002 Cal. App. Unpub. LEXIS 11548, at
118. See People v. Avila, No. B193902, 2008 Cal. App. Unpub. LEXIS 6125, at
119. People v. Edmonton, 126 Cal. Rptr. 2d 836,839 (Ct. App. 2002)
120. People v. Vercolio, 843 N.E.2d 417,420 (111. App. Ct. 2006).
121. See Cooley v. Superior Court, 57 P.3d 654, 660 (Cal. 2002) (Hispanics)
122. People v. Flores, 50 Cal. Rptr. 3d 567, 570 (Ct. App. 2006) (castrated men)
123. See NATHAN JAMES ET AL., CIVIL COMMITMENT OF SEXUALLY DANGEROUS PERSONS 32-35 (2008)
124. See ALAN D. GOLD, EXPERT EVIDENCE IN CRIMINAL LAW: THE SCIENTIFIC APPROACH 17 (2003)
125. Post-Daubert, others have written general guides to educate judges and lawyers on matters of science and statistics. FED. JUDICIAL CTR., REFERENCE MANUAL ON SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE (2d ed. 2000)