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Volumn 14, Issue 2, 2011, Pages 213-280

Controlling sexually violent predators: Continued incarceration at what cost?

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EID: 79955653377     PISSN: 19334192     EISSN: 19334206     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1525/nclr.2011.14.2.213     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (11)

References (290)
  • 1
    • 79955671400 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Column One, Locking up "Sexual Predators," A Public Outcry in Washington State Targeted Repeat Violent Sex Criminals, A New Preventative Law Would Keep them in Jail Indefinitely, Los Angeles Times, May 10, 1990, Home Edition at 2 (hereinafter Sexual Predators).
    • Column One, Locking up "Sexual Predators," A Public Outcry in Washington State Targeted Repeat Violent Sex Criminals, A New Preventative Law Would Keep them in Jail Indefinitely, Los Angeles Times, May 10, 1990, Home Edition at 2 (hereinafter Sexual Predators).
  • 2
    • 79955671215 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 3.
    • Id. at 3.
  • 3
    • 79955645444 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id.
    • Id.
  • 4
    • 79955659507 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id.
    • Id.
  • 5
    • 79955656243 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Officials tried to commit Shriner under Washington's Involuntary Treatment Act, but he had not committed a recent overt act, so he did not qualify. Roxanne Lieb, Vernon Quinsey & Lucy Berliner, Sexual Predators and Social Policy, in Crime and Justice 66, 43-114 (M. Tonry ed., 1998).
    • Officials tried to commit Shriner under Washington's Involuntary Treatment Act, but he had not committed a recent overt act, so he did not qualify. Roxanne Lieb, Vernon Quinsey & Lucy Berliner, Sexual Predators and Social Policy, in Crime and Justice 66, 43-114 (M. Tonry ed., 1998).
  • 6
    • 79955675636 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Sexual Predators, supra note 1, at 4.
    • Sexual Predators, supra note 1, at 4.
  • 7
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    • Community Response, and Social Policy in the United States and Canada, 46(4) Int'l J. Offender Therapy & Comp. Criminology 483 at 492 (2002).
    • Michael G. Petrunik, Managing Unacceptable Risk: Sex Offenders, Community Response, and Social Policy in the United States and Canada, 46(4) Int'l J. Offender Therapy & Comp. Criminology 483 at 492 (2002).
    • Managing Unacceptable Risk: Sex Offenders
    • Petrunik, M.G.1
  • 8
    • 79955656975 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Wash. Rev. Code § 71.09.020 (2008).
    • Wash. Rev. Code § 71.09.020 (2008).
  • 9
    • 79955672896 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • On August 13, 2008, I wrote to each of the states that had passed sexually violent predator legislation and asked for data regarding commitments in their state. Specifically, I requested information on the number of commitments, the number in process of being committed, the number released, the types of offenses they had committed, and a breakdown by race, gender, and age. I received data from all of the states except Florida and Nebraska, and I received incomplete data from Massachusetts. For these three states I used data that was published in a New York Times article in 2007. Since that data was collected in 2006, and since the laws are still in effect, I am assuming that these states had more committed SVPs in 2008 than they did in 2006. Doubts Rise as States Hold Sex Offenders after Prison, The New York Times, Mar. 4, 2007, A1 at A18, http://www.nytimes.com/imagepages/2007/03/03/us/20070304-CIVIL- GRAPHIC.html. Not all states use the terminology, "sexually violent predator." Other terms include, "sexually dangerous person," and "sexually violent person." Since the legislation is very similar, I have decided to use one term for the sake of simplicity: sexually violent predator or SVP.
  • 10
    • 79955666039 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • This includes 140 detained in Illinois, 40 detained in New Jersey, and 82 detained in Washington.
    • This includes 140 detained in Illinois, 40 detained in New Jersey, and 82 detained in Washington.
  • 11
    • 79955652365 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Letter from California Department of Mental Health, re: Public Records Request 08-0905, Oct., 1, 2008.
    • Letter from California Department of Mental Health, re: Public Records Request 08-0905, Oct., 1, 2008.
  • 12
    • 79955658814 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For an in-depth discussion of the direct and indirect costs of enacting and implementing sexually violent predator legislation
    • For an in-depth discussion of the direct and indirect costs of enacting and implementing sexually violent predator legislation
  • 13
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    • See John Q. La Fond, The Costs of Enacting a Sexual Predator Law, in 4 Psychology, Public Policy and Law 468 (1998).
    • See John Q. La Fond, The Costs of Enacting a Sexual Predator Law, in 4 Psychology, Public Policy and Law 468 (1998).
  • 14
    • 79955660458 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Eric S. Janus, Failure to Protect: America's Sexual Violent Predator Laws and the Rise of the Preventive State (2006) at 62, citing Washington State Institute for Public Policy, Involuntary Commitment of Sexually Violent Predators: Comparing State Laws (March 2005) and Terrence W. Campbell, Assessing Sex Offenders: Problems and Pitfalls (2004) at 6.
    • Eric S. Janus, Failure to Protect: America's Sexual Violent Predator Laws and the Rise of the Preventive State (2006) at 62, citing Washington State Institute for Public Policy, Involuntary Commitment of Sexually Violent Predators: Comparing State Laws (March 2005) and Terrence W. Campbell, Assessing Sex Offenders: Problems and Pitfalls (2004) at 6.
  • 15
    • 79955655724 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Janus, supra note 13, at 114. Janus writes that in 2004, California spent more than $78 million to lock up 535 predators, while at the same time providing "no substantial sex offender treatment for the seventeen thousand sex offenders in its prisons." Id. at 115. Similarly, in 2004, Minnesota spent $26 million to lock up 235 predators. That same year, pecuniary problems forced the state to propose cutting 137 of its 778 police officers and actually to eliminate 100 probation officer positions despite rising caseloads, and it cut its funding for domestic violence and sexual violence prevention programs by $3.6 million per year. Id.
    • Janus, supra note 13, at 114. Janus writes that in 2004, California spent more than $78 million to lock up 535 predators, while at the same time providing "no substantial sex offender treatment for the seventeen thousand sex offenders in its prisons." Id. at 115. Similarly, in 2004, Minnesota spent $26 million to lock up 235 predators. That same year, pecuniary problems forced the state to propose cutting 137 of its 778 police officers and actually to eliminate 100 probation officer positions despite rising caseloads, and it cut its funding for domestic violence and sexual violence prevention programs by $3.6 million per year. Id.
  • 16
    • 79955653414 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Jenifer Warren, Judge Blocks Part of Sex Offender Law, Los Angeles Times, Nov. 8, 2006, at 1, latimes.com.
    • Jenifer Warren, Judge Blocks Part of Sex Offender Law, Los Angeles Times, Nov. 8, 2006, at 1, latimes.com.
  • 17
    • 79955649851 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • New Hampshire Revised Statutes Annotated, Title X, Chapter 135-E-9-12.
    • New Hampshire Revised Statutes Annotated, Title X, Chapter 135-E-9-12.
  • 18
    • 79955655725 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Candace Rondeaux, Loudoun's 98 Sex Offenders Face New Federal Restrictions, Washington Post, Aug. 3, 2006, at T03.
    • Candace Rondeaux, Loudoun's 98 Sex Offenders Face New Federal Restrictions, Washington Post, Aug. 3, 2006, at T03.
  • 19
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    • 2007 N.Y. ALS 7
    • 2007 N.Y. ALS 7
  • 20
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    • 2007 N.Y. Laws 7
    • 2007 N.Y. Laws 7
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    • 2007 N.Y.S.N. 3318.
    • 2007 N.Y.S.N. 3318.
  • 22
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    • Janus, supra note 13, at 5-6, 18-20.
    • Janus, supra note 13, at 5-6, 18-20.
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    • Id. at 46-93.
    • Id. at 46-93.
  • 24
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    • Id. at 107-9.
    • Id. at 107-9.
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    • Harcourt, supra note 22, at 190.
    • Harcourt, supra note 22, at 190.
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    • Janus, supra note 13, at 21.
    • Janus, supra note 13, at 21.
  • 29
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    • Jonathan Simon, Managing the Monstrous: Sex Offenders and the New Penology in Protecting Society from Sexually Dangerous Offenders: Law, Justice, and Therapy 301 (Bruce J. Winick & John Q. LaFond eds., 2003).
    • Jonathan Simon, Managing the Monstrous: Sex Offenders and the New Penology in Protecting Society from Sexually Dangerous Offenders: Law, Justice, and Therapy 301 (Bruce J. Winick & John Q. LaFond eds., 2003).
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    • U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, Recidivism of Sex Offenders Released from Prison in 1994, Nov. 2003, NCJ198281 (hereinafter DOJ).
    • U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, Recidivism of Sex Offenders Released from Prison in 1994, Nov. 2003, NCJ198281 (hereinafter DOJ).
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    • Id. at 452.
    • Id. at 452.
  • 34
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    • Harcourt, supra note 22, at 21.
    • Harcourt, supra note 22, at 21.
  • 35
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    • Stability of the interpretative risk percentages for the RRASOR and the static-99, 16
    • Dennis M. Doren, Stability of the Interpretative Risk Percentages for the RRASOR and the Static-99, 16 Sexual Abuse: J. Res. & Treatment, 25, 26 (2004).
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    • Kansas v. Hendricks, 521 U.S. 346 at 358 (1996).
    • Kansas v. Hendricks, 521 U.S. 346 at 358 (1996).
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    • Id.
    • Id.
  • 38
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    • For a detailed discussion of the misconceptions underlying sex offender policies
    • For a detailed discussion of the misconceptions underlying sex offender policies
  • 39
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    • Social policies designed to prevent sexual violence, 18
    • See Jill S. Levenson & Davi A. D'Amora, Social Policies Designed to Prevent Sexual Violence, 18 Crim. Just. Pol'y Rev. 168, 175-80 (2007).
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    • Levenson, J.S.1    D'Amora, D.A.2
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    • DOJ, supra note 28
    • DOJ, supra note 28
  • 41
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    • See Addendum 1.
    • See Addendum 1.
  • 42
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    • Alfred Blumstein, Jacqueline Cohen, Jeffrey A. Roth & Christy A. Visher, eds., 1 Criminal Careers and "Career Criminals" 55 (1986). "Rearrest forms a conservative measure of reoffending because many crimes do not result in arrest.⋯While some sex offenders in this study probably committed a new sex crime after their release and were not arrested or convicted, the study cannot say how many." Of course, not all those people are actually guilty, which will partially offset at least some of those who committed a new crime but were not arrested. DOJ, supra note 28, at 6.
    • Alfred Blumstein, Jacqueline Cohen, Jeffrey A. Roth & Christy A. Visher, eds., 1 Criminal Careers and "Career Criminals" 55 (1986). "Rearrest forms a conservative measure of reoffending because many crimes do not result in arrest.⋯While some sex offenders in this study probably committed a new sex crime after their release and were not arrested or convicted, the study cannot say how many." Of course, not all those people are actually guilty, which will partially offset at least some of those who committed a new crime but were not arrested. DOJ, supra note 28, at 6.
  • 43
    • 79955668429 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Arizona, Maryland, North Carolina, California, Michigan, Ohio, Delaware, Minnesota, Oregon, Florida, New Jersey, Texas, Illinois, New York, and Virginia. DOJ, supra note 28, at 1.
    • Arizona, Maryland, North Carolina, California, Michigan, Ohio, Delaware, Minnesota, Oregon, Florida, New Jersey, Texas, Illinois, New York, and Virginia. DOJ, supra note 28, at 1.
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    • Id.
    • Id.
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    • Id.
    • Id.
  • 46
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    • Id. at 24.
    • Id. at 24.
  • 47
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    • Id.
    • Id.
  • 48
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    • Id. at 8.
    • Id. at 8.
  • 49
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    • For a detailed discussion of the recidivism differences between different types of sex offenders as well as between sex offenders and non-sex offenders
    • For a detailed discussion of the recidivism differences between different types of sex offenders as well as between sex offenders and non-sex offenders
  • 50
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    • The criminal activity of sexual offenders in adulthood: Revisiting the specilization debate, 17
    • See Patrick Lussier, The Criminal Activity of Sexual offenders in Adulthood: Revisiting the Specilization Debate, 17 Sexual Abuse: J. Res. & Treatment 269 (2005).
    • (2005) Sexual Abuse: J. Res. & Treatment , vol.269
    • Lussier, P.1
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    • DOJ, supra note 28, at 1.
    • DOJ, supra note 28, at 1.
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    • Id.
    • Id.
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    • Id. at 1-2.
    • Id. at 1-2.
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    • For a discussion of the difficulties in studying sex offender recidivism
    • For a discussion of the difficulties in studying sex offender recidivism
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    • Predicting relapse: A meta-analysis of sexual offender recidivism studies, 66
    • R. Karl Hanson & Monique T. Bussiere, Predicting Relapse: A Meta-Analysis of Sexual Offender Recidivism Studies, 66 J. Consulting & Crim. Psychol. 348, 350 (1998).
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    • Hanson, R.K.1    Bussiere, M.T.2
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    • Id. at 357.
    • Id. at 357.
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    • Are sex offenders different? An examination of rearrest patterns, 17
    • Lisa L. Sample & Timothy M. Bray, Are Sex Offenders Different? An Examination of Rearrest Patterns, 17 Crim. Just. Pol'y Rev. 83 (2006).
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    • Sample, L.L.1    Bray, T.M.2
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    • Id. at 95.
    • Id. at 95.
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    • Id.
    • Id.
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    • Hanson, R.K.1    Scott, H.2    Steffy, R.A.3
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    • Id. at 332.
    • Id. at 332.
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    • Id. at 19.
    • Id. at 19.
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    • National Crime Victimization Survey Resource Guide, National Archive of Criminal Justice Data
    • National Crime Victimization Survey Resource Guide, National Archive of Criminal Justice Data, http://www.icpsr.umich.edu/NACJD/NCVS/.
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    • Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS)
    • Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS), http:// bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/index.cfm?ty=dcdetail&iid=245.
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    • DOJ, Criminal Victimization in the United States, 1994 Statistical Tables (May 1997), NCJ162126, Table 91.
    • DOJ, Criminal Victimization in the United States, 1994 Statistical Tables (May 1997), NCJ162126, Table 91.
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    • DOJ, Criminal Victimization in the United States, 1995 Statistical Tables (May 2000), NCJ171129, Table 91.
    • DOJ, Criminal Victimization in the United States, 1995 Statistical Tables (May 2000), NCJ171129, Table 91.
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    • DOJ, Criminal Victimization in the United States, 1997 Statistical Tables (Sept. 2000), NCJ174445, Table 91.
    • DOJ, Criminal Victimization in the United States, 1997 Statistical Tables (Sept. 2000), NCJ174445, Table 91.
  • 75
    • 79955673224 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • DOJ, Criminal Victimization in the United States, 1997 Statistical Tables (Sept. 2000), NCJ174446, Table 91. The strikingly low percentage of those reporting sexual assaults may be explained by the fact that the estimate was made based on approximately ten or fewer sample cases.
    • DOJ, Criminal Victimization in the United States, 1997 Statistical Tables (Sept. 2000), NCJ174446, Table 91. The strikingly low percentage of those reporting sexual assaults may be explained by the fact that the estimate was made based on approximately ten or fewer sample cases.
  • 76
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    • DOJ, Criminal Victimization in the United States, 1998 Statistical Tables, Table 91.
    • DOJ, Criminal Victimization in the United States, 1998 Statistical Tables, Table 91.
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    • DOJ, Criminal Victimization in the United States, 1999 Statistical Tables, Table 91.
    • DOJ, Criminal Victimization in the United States, 1999 Statistical Tables, Table 91.
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    • DOJ, Criminal Victimization in the United States, 2000 Statistical Tables, Table 91.
    • DOJ, Criminal Victimization in the United States, 2000 Statistical Tables, Table 91.
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    • DOJ, Criminal Victimization in the United States, 2001 Statistical Tables, Table 91.
    • DOJ, Criminal Victimization in the United States, 2001 Statistical Tables, Table 91.
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    • DOJ, Criminal Victimization in the United States, 2002 Statistical Tables, Table 91.
    • DOJ, Criminal Victimization in the United States, 2002 Statistical Tables, Table 91.
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    • DOJ, Criminal Victimization in the United States, 2003 Statistical Tables, Table 91. The rape estimate was given an asterix because it was calculated based on 10 or fewer rapes.
    • DOJ, Criminal Victimization in the United States, 2003 Statistical Tables, Table 91. The rape estimate was given an asterix because it was calculated based on 10 or fewer rapes.
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    • DOJ, Criminal Victimization in the United States, 2004 Statistical Tables (June 2006), NCJ213257, Table 91.
    • DOJ, Criminal Victimization in the United States, 2004 Statistical Tables (June 2006), NCJ213257, Table 91.
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    • Bureau of justice statistics bulletin
    • Dec. 2007, NCJ219413 at 5. Although changes were made to the NCVS in 2006 that prevent comparison of national-level estimates from previous years, it is still worth reporting prior findings. Id. at 1.
    • Michael Rand & Shannan Catalano, Bureau of Justice Statistics Bulletin, Criminal Victimization, 2006, Dec. 2007, NCJ219413 at 5. Although changes were made to the NCVS in 2006 that prevent comparison of national-level estimates from previous years, it is still worth reporting prior findings. Id. at 1.
    • (2006) Criminal Victimization
    • Rand, M.1    Catalano, S.2
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    • DOJ, Criminal Victimization in United States, 2007 Statistical Tables, Table 91. Once again, BJS put an asterix next to the rape estimation because it was based on just 10 or fewer cases.
    • DOJ, Criminal Victimization in United States, 2007 Statistical Tables, Table 91. Once again, BJS put an asterix next to the rape estimation because it was based on just 10 or fewer cases.
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    • Rand & Catallano, supra note 73, at 5.
    • Rand & Catallano, supra note 73, at 5.
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    • Id.
    • Id.
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    • DOJ, supra note 74, Table 91.
    • DOJ, supra note 74, Table 91.
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    • See Fisher et al., supra note 56, at 9-15.
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    • Nor must the offense have actually been completed
    • Nor must the offense have actually been completed
  • 97
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    • in most states, attempt, solicitation, facilitation, or conspiracy to commit a sexually violent offense is enough. A.R.S. § 36-3701, 6(c) (2008).
    • in most states, attempt, solicitation, facilitation, or conspiracy to commit a sexually violent offense is enough. A.R.S. § 36-3701, 6(c) (2008).
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    • Id. at 190.
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    • Id. at 191.
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    • For a discussion of the jurisprudence of risk assessment
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    • Hanson & Bussiere, supra note 49, at 356; r = 0.10 for sexual recidivism.
    • Hanson & Bussiere, supra note 49, at 356; r = 0.10 for sexual recidivism.
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    • Hanson, supra note 96, at
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    • Id. at 62.
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    • Hanson et al., supra note 102, at 159.
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    • R. Karl Hanson, The Development of a Brief Actuarial Risk Scale for Sexual Offense Recidivism (User Report 1997-04).
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    • R. Karl Hanson & David Thornton (1999), Static-99: Improving Actuarial Risk Assessments for Sex Offenders (User Report No. 1999-02), Ottawa: Department of the Solicitor General of Canada (1999).
    • R. Karl Hanson & David Thornton (1999), Static-99: Improving Actuarial Risk Assessments for Sex Offenders (User Report No. 1999-02), Ottawa: Department of the Solicitor General of Canada (1999).
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    • Id.
    • Id.
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    • Hanson, supra note 96, at 53.
    • Hanson, supra note 96, at 53.
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    • This includes false positive and false negative rates, sensitivity and specificity, positive and negative predictive power, and percent correctly classified. Marnie E. Rice & Grant T. Harris, Violent Recidivism: Assessing Predictive Validity, 63(5) J. Consulting & Clinical Psychol. 737-48, 737 (1995), citing R.J. Baldessarini, S. Finkelstein & G.W. Arana, The Predictive Power of Diagnostic Tests and the Effect of Prevalence of Illness, 40 Archives Gen. Psychiatry 569-73 (1983).
    • This includes false positive and false negative rates, sensitivity and specificity, positive and negative predictive power, and percent correctly classified. Marnie E. Rice & Grant T. Harris, Violent Recidivism: Assessing Predictive Validity, 63(5) J. Consulting & Clinical Psychol. 737-48, 737 (1995), citing R.J. Baldessarini, S. Finkelstein & G.W. Arana, The Predictive Power of Diagnostic Tests and the Effect of Prevalence of Illness, 40 Archives Gen. Psychiatry 569-73 (1983).
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    • Rice & Harris, supra note 117, at 737-738, citing Robert Rosenthal, How Are We Doing in Soft Psychology?, 45 Am. Psychologist 775-77 (1990)
    • Rice & Harris, supra note 117, at 737-738, citing Robert Rosenthal, How Are We Doing in Soft Psychology?, 45 Am. Psychologist 775-77 (1990)
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    • and Robert Rosenthal, Effect Sizes: Pearson's Correlation, Its Display via the BESD, and Alternative Indices, 46 Am. Psychologist 1086-87 (1991).
    • and Robert Rosenthal, Effect Sizes: Pearson's Correlation, Its Display via the BESD, and Alternative Indices, 46 Am. Psychologist 1086-87 (1991).
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    • Rice & Harris, id. at 738.
    • Rice & Harris, id. at 738.
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    • Hanson & Thornton, supra note 113, at 7. Another benefit to ROCs is that they allow the accuracy of instruments to be compared even if they were developed on samples with different base rates. Grant T. Harris, Marnie E. Rice, Vernon L. Quinsey, Martin L. Lalumiere, Douglas Boer & Carol Lang, A Multisite Comparison of Actuarial Risk Instruments for Sex Offenders, 15(3) Psychological Assessment 413 (2003).
    • Hanson & Thornton, supra note 113, at 7. Another benefit to ROCs is that they allow the accuracy of instruments to be compared even if they were developed on samples with different base rates. Grant T. Harris, Marnie E. Rice, Vernon L. Quinsey, Martin L. Lalumiere, Douglas Boer & Carol Lang, A Multisite Comparison of Actuarial Risk Instruments for Sex Offenders, 15(3) Psychological Assessment 413 (2003).
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    • Rice & Harris, supra note 117, at 738.
    • Rice & Harris, supra note 117, at 738.
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    • Gabrielle Sjostedt & Niklas Langstrom, Assessment of Risk for Criminal Recidivism among Rapists: A Comparison of Four Different Measures, 8 Psychol., Crime & L. 25-40 (2002).
    • Gabrielle Sjostedt & Niklas Langstrom, Assessment of Risk for Criminal Recidivism among Rapists: A Comparison of Four Different Measures, 8 Psychol., Crime & L. 25-40 (2002).
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    • Hanson & Thornton, supra note 113.
    • Hanson & Thornton, supra note 113.
  • 143
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    • Id. at 3. In 1998, Hanson and Bussiere conducted a meta-analysis of sexual analysis recidivism studies to find the factors most strongly correlated with sexual reoffending. They looked at data on 28,972 sexual offenders.
    • Id. at 3. In 1998, Hanson and Bussiere conducted a meta-analysis of sexual analysis recidivism studies to find the factors most strongly correlated with sexual reoffending. They looked at data on 28,972 sexual offenders.
  • 144
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    • See supra note 49. The Rapid Risk Assessment for Sex Offence Recidivism (RRASOR) was created by taking the seven factors that correlated at least 0.11 with sexual recidivism. The RRASOR was created by taking the four factors most highly correlated with sexual reoffending: prior sex offenses, any unrelated victims, any male victims, and age less than 25. It was then tested on a new population sample. Predictive accuracy in both the development and validation samples was similar (r = 0.27; ROC area = 0.71). Hanson & Thornton, supra note 113 at 3.
    • See supra note 49. The Rapid Risk Assessment for Sex Offence Recidivism (RRASOR) was created by taking the seven factors that correlated at least 0.11 with sexual recidivism. The RRASOR was created by taking the four factors most highly correlated with sexual reoffending: prior sex offenses, any unrelated victims, any male victims, and age less than 25. It was then tested on a new population sample. Predictive accuracy in both the development and validation samples was similar (r = 0.27; ROC area = 0.71). Hanson & Thornton, supra note 113 at 3.
  • 145
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    • Note
    • Hanson & Thornton, supra note 113 at 3-4. The Structured Anchored Clinical Judgement Minimum (SACJ-Min) uses a stage approach to predict sexual and violent recidivism. Stage 1 considers the offender's official criminal record: prior sex offenses, current sex offenses, current nonsexual violent offenses, prior nonsexual violent offenses, and four or more prior sentencing occasions. Id. at 3. Individuals are given a score of low to high risk based on how many of these factors they have. Stage 2 considers whether certain potentially aggravating factors are present in the individual's history. These include any stranger victims, any male victims, whether the individual was never married, and whether he has conviction for noncontact sex offenses such as exhibitionism and making obscene phone calls. If two or more of these factors are present, then the individual's initial risk level is increased one level. Id. at 4. The SACJ-Min was developed and validated on populations in the United Kingdom. In the validation sample, it correlated 0.34 with sexual recidivism. Id. at 4.
  • 146
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    • R. Karl Hanson, The Validity of the Static-99 with Older Sexual Offender 2005-01, Publication of the Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness Canada at 2 (2005).
    • R. Karl Hanson, The Validity of the Static-99 with Older Sexual Offender 2005-01, Publication of the Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness Canada at 2 (2005).
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    • R.J. McGrath, G.F. Cumming & B.L. Burchard, Current Practices in Sexual Abuser Management: The Safer Society 2002 Nationwide Survey (2003).
    • R.J. McGrath, G.F. Cumming & B.L. Burchard, Current Practices in Sexual Abuser Management: The Safer Society 2002 Nationwide Survey (2003).
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    • Id.
    • Id.
  • 149
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    • Note
    • "Prior sex offenses" refers to those prior to the index offense. By definition, the index offense is that addressed at the individual's most recent court appearance. If, however, the individual was charged with, or convicted of, several offenses at that last court appearance, they do not count in the scoring. Only offenses prior to the latest court appearance count. In scoring the prior sex offenses, the Static-99 differentiated between charges and convictions. An individual received a score of 0 if he had no priors of any kind, a 1 if he had one to two charges or one conviction, a 2 if he had three to five charges or two to three convictions, and a 3 if he had six or more charges or four or more convictions. Hanson & Thornton, supra note 113, at 20-21.
  • 150
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    • Prior sentencing dates require that the scorer total the number of prior occasions in which an individual appeared for a court for sentencing not including the index offense. Complete acquittals are not counted. If an individual has three or fewer prior sentencings, then he gets a score of 0. Four or more, he receives a 1. Id. at 19-20.
    • Prior sentencing dates require that the scorer total the number of prior occasions in which an individual appeared for a court for sentencing not including the index offense. Complete acquittals are not counted. If an individual has three or fewer prior sentencings, then he gets a score of 0. Four or more, he receives a 1. Id. at 19-20.
  • 151
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    • This includes only convictions, so if an individual has reported engaging in such activity, it does not count. The conduct includes: exhibitionism, voyeurism, possession of obscene material, and engaging in obscene phone calls. If the individual has any convictions for such conduct, he receives a 1; otherwise, he receives a 0. Id.
    • This includes only convictions, so if an individual has reported engaging in such activity, it does not count. The conduct includes: exhibitionism, voyeurism, possession of obscene material, and engaging in obscene phone calls. If the individual has any convictions for such conduct, he receives a 1; otherwise, he receives a 0. Id.
  • 152
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    • The scorer should only count the number of sexual convictions or charges before the index offense. If on the most recent court appearance, a person is charged with, or convicted of, more than one sexual offense-even if it is against more than one victim-he does not receive points for those other offenses. In effect, all of the charges or convictions handled on the same day count for scoring purposes as just the index offense. Id.
    • The scorer should only count the number of sexual convictions or charges before the index offense. If on the most recent court appearance, a person is charged with, or convicted of, more than one sexual offense-even if it is against more than one victim-he does not receive points for those other offenses. In effect, all of the charges or convictions handled on the same day count for scoring purposes as just the index offense. Id.
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    • If the individual has convictions prior to the index offense for violence, then he receives a score of 1; if not, he receives a score of 0. Id.
    • If the individual has convictions prior to the index offense for violence, then he receives a score of 1; if not, he receives a score of 0. Id.
  • 154
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    • A person receives a score of 1 if the victim is unrelated. "A related victim is one where the relationship would be sufficiently close that marriage would normally be prohibited, such as parent, uncle, grand-parent, step-sister." Id. at 21.
    • A person receives a score of 1 if the victim is unrelated. "A related victim is one where the relationship would be sufficiently close that marriage would normally be prohibited, such as parent, uncle, grand-parent, step-sister." Id. at 21.
  • 155
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    • A person receives a score of 1 if the victim was a stranger, meaning that he knew her for less than 24 hours. Id.
    • A person receives a score of 1 if the victim was a stranger, meaning that he knew her for less than 24 hours. Id.
  • 156
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    • A person receives a score of 1 if there are any sexual offenses involving boys except possession of child pornography. Id.
    • A person receives a score of 1 if there are any sexual offenses involving boys except possession of child pornography. Id.
  • 157
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    • This required the score to consider the age of the individual at the time of the evaluation. If the individual was 25 or older, he receives a 0; anything younger, he received a 1. Id. at 20-21.
    • This required the score to consider the age of the individual at the time of the evaluation. If the individual was 25 or older, he receives a 0; anything younger, he received a 1. Id. at 20-21.
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    • The individual received a score of 1 unless he had lived with a male or female lover or a spouse for at least two years. Id. at 21.
    • The individual received a score of 1 unless he had lived with a male or female lover or a spouse for at least two years. Id. at 21.
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    • Id.
    • Id.
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    • Id. at 5.
    • Id. at 5.
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    • Id. at 13. It is worth mentioning that an article by Sjostedt and Langstrom noted an unpublished study by Marnie Rice that found the ROC area of the RRASOR and the Static-99 as being at or just below 0.60. If this ROC area were used, the number of false positives and false negatives would be higher
    • Id. at 13. It is worth mentioning that an article by Sjostedt and Langstrom noted an unpublished study by Marnie Rice that found the ROC area of the RRASOR and the Static-99 as being at or just below 0.60. If this ROC area were used, the number of false positives and false negatives would be higher.
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    • Id. at 417-18.
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    • Id. at 11.
    • Id. at 11.
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    • Hanson et al., supra note 54, at 327.
    • Hanson et al., supra note 54, at 327.
  • 174
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    • Id. at 332.
    • Id. at 332.
  • 175
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    • Id. at 335 (emphasis added).
    • Id. at 335 (emphasis added).
  • 176
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    • Doren, supra note 141.
    • Doren, supra note 141.
  • 177
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    • Hanson & Thornton, supra note 113, at 5-7.
    • Hanson & Thornton, supra note 113, at 5-7.
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    • Id.
    • Id.
  • 179
    • 79955650314 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id.
    • Id.
  • 180
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    • DOJ, supra note 28.
    • DOJ, supra note 28.
  • 181
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    • Hanson et al., supra note 54, at 335.
    • Hanson et al., supra note 54, at 335.
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    • 85127161618 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • Douglas Mossman makes a similar point in responding to a 2004 article by Dennis Doren. In that article, Doren concluded, "Although it may have been believed in the past that a sample's underlying recidivism base rate could affect the interpretation of the actuarial instruments' scores, that belief was found largely not supported. Within a relatively wide base rate range (i.e., a 12% range within 5 years), the risk percentages essentially do not change. Even extreme base rate changes do not alter the interpretation of some actuarial scores (e.g., RRASOR = 4 or 5). Doren, supra note 32, at 34. In his 2006 article, Mossman shows how variation in base rate can be a significant source of possible error in estimating the risk of sexual recidivism. He concludes, "Absent knowledge of the base rate of recidivism in the population from which an evaluee is drawn and the likelihood ratios associated with the instrument's score in that population, an evaluee's score on the RRASOR, and the TATIC-99, or other actuarial scales only represents a ranking of that evaluee's recidivism potential relative to other evaluees. Though it is reasonable to believe that the ranking abilities of a proven risk assessment scale will generalize to new populations in which the scale has not been tested, one should not translate a scale's scores into probabilities of recidivism without knowing how the scale functions in those new populations (that is, the likelihood rations associated with specific scores) and those populations' base rates of recidivism." Douglas Mossman, Another Look at Interpreting Risk Categories, 18 Sexual Abuse: J. Res. & Treatment 41-63 (2006).
  • 183
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    • Harris & Hanson, supra note 149, at 11.
    • Harris & Hanson, supra note 149, at 11.
  • 184
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    • Andrew Harris, Amy Phenix, R. Karl Hanson & David Thornton, Static-99 Coding Rules Revised-2003, 71.
    • Andrew Harris, Amy Phenix, R. Karl Hanson & David Thornton, Static-99 Coding Rules Revised-2003, 71.
  • 185
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    • The uncritical acceptance of risk assessment in forensic practice, 24(5)
    • Richard Rogers, The Uncritical Acceptance of Risk Assessment in Forensic Practice, 24(5) Law & Human Behav. 595-605, 602 (2000).
    • (2000) Law & Human Behav. , vol.602 , pp. 595-605
    • Rogers, R.1
  • 186
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    • Reliability and validity study of the stati-99/RRASOR sex offender risk assessment instruments
    • Justice and Corrections at the George Washington University, submitted to the Pennsylvania Probation and Parole, at 5 (Jan. 2003).
    • James Austin, Johnette Peyton & Kelly Dedel Johnson, Reliability and Validity Study of the Stati-99/RRASOR Sex Offender Risk Assessment Instruments, Final Report of the Institute on Crime, Justice and Corrections at the George Washington University, submitted to the Pennsylvania Probation and Parole, at 5 (Jan. 2003).
    • Final Report of the Institute on Crime
    • Austin, J.1    Peyton, J.2    Johnson, K.D.3
  • 187
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    • Id. at 5.
    • Id. at 5.
  • 188
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    • Id.
    • Id.
  • 189
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    • Id. at 6.
    • Id. at 6.
  • 190
    • 79955668946 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • R. Karl Hanson, Notes on the Development of the Static 2002, 2003-01, Publication of the Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness Canada, at 3. Hanson deleted "Ever lived with a lover for two years."
    • R. Karl Hanson, Notes on the Development of the Static 2002, 2003-01, Publication of the Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness Canada, at 3. Hanson deleted "Ever lived with a lover for two years."
  • 191
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    • Note
    • R. Karl Hanson, Recidivism and Age: Follow-Up Data from 4,673 Sexual Offenders, 17 J. Interpersonal Violence 1046, 1053 (2002). Interestingly, Hanson found differences among offender groups. The recidivism rate of both incest offenders and rapists declined steadily over time, and neither type of offender released after age 60 recidivated. Although the recidivism rate of extra-familial child molesters also declined steadily with age, the drop was much less until the offender reached aged 49, when recidivism dropped dramatically. Two extra-familial child molesters released after the age of 60 recidivated.
  • 192
    • 64549115452 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Aging versus stable enduring traits as explanatory constructs in sex offender recidivism: Partitioning actuarial prediction into conceptually meaningful components, 26
    • Howard E. Barbaree, Calvin M. Langton, Ray Blanchard & James M. Cantor, Aging Versus Stable Enduring Traits as Explanatory Constructs in Sex Offender Recidivism: Partitioning Actuarial Prediction into Conceptually Meaningful Components, 26 Crim. Just. & Behav. 443 (2009)
    • (2009) Crim. Just. & Behav. , vol.443
    • Barbaree, H.E.1    Langton, C.M.2    Blanchard, R.3    Cantor, J.M.4
  • 193
    • 70350755548 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Rediscovering quetelet, again: The "aging" offender and the prediction of reoffending in a sample of adult sex offenders, 26
    • Patrick Lussier & Jay Healey, Rediscovering Quetelet, Again: The "Aging" Offender and the Prediction of Reoffending in a Sample of Adult Sex Offenders, 26 Just. Q. 828-56 (2009)
    • (2009) Just. Q. , pp. 828-856
    • Lussier, P.1    Healey, J.2
  • 194
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    • Criminal trajectories of adult sex offenders and the age effect: Examining the dynamic aspect of offending in adulthood, 20(2)
    • Patrick Lussier, Stacy Tzoumakis, Jesse Cale & Joanna Amirault, Criminal Trajectories of Adult Sex Offenders and the Age Effect: Examining the Dynamic Aspect of Offending in Adulthood, 20(2) Int'l Crim. Just. Rev. 147-68 (2010)
    • (2010) Int'l Crim. Just. Rev. , pp. 147-68
    • Lussier, P.1    Tzoumakis, S.2    Cale, J.3    Amirault, J.4
  • 195
    • 78649532777 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Recent research (N = 9,305) underscores the importance of using age-stratified actuarial tables in sex offender risk assessments, 22
    • Richard Wollert, Elliott Cramer, Jacqueline Waggoner, Alex Skelton & James Vess, Recent Research (N = 9,305) Underscores the Importance of Using Age-Stratified Actuarial Tables in Sex Offender Risk Assessments, 22 Sexual Abuse: J. Res. & Treatment 471 (2010).
    • (2010) Sexual Abuse: J. Res. & Treatment , vol.471
    • Wollert, R.1    Cramer, E.2    Waggoner, J.3    Skelton, A.4    Vess, J.5
  • 196
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    • Note
    • In 2007, Prentky and Lee looked at the age effect on a cohort of 136 rapists and 115 child molesters who had been civilly committed to a Massachusetts prison and were then followed for 25 years. They found that with rapists, recidivism dropped linearly as a function of age. With child molesters, however, they found that recidivism increased from age 20 to age 40, and then declined slightly at age 50 and significantly at age 60. As Prentky and Lee point out, their sample is statistically small and comprised of offenders with a higher base rate of recidivism than drawn from the general prison population. "Although this latter consideration might be regarded as a limitation in terms of generalizability, it may also be seen as a strength of the study. Presumably, using a higher risk sample is a more severe test of the age-crime hypothesis
  • 197
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    • providing confirmatory support for the rapists and 'amplifying' or exaggerating the quadratic blip in Hansons' (2002) data for child molesters." Robert Alan Prentky & Austin F.S. Lee, Effect of Age-at-Release on Long Term Sexual Re-offense Rates in Civilly Committed Sexual Offenders, 19 Sexual Abuse: J. Res. & Treatment 43 (2007).
    • providing confirmatory support for the rapists and 'amplifying' or exaggerating the quadratic blip in Hansons' (2002) data for child molesters." Robert Alan Prentky & Austin F.S. Lee, Effect of Age-at-Release on Long Term Sexual Re-offense Rates in Civilly Committed Sexual Offenders, 19 Sexual Abuse: J. Res. & Treatment 43 (2007).
  • 198
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    • Meachum v. Fano 427 U.S. 215 (1976) at 226, citing Dent v. West Virginia (1889) 129 U.S. 114, 123.
    • Meachum v. Fano 427 U.S. 215 (1976) at 226, citing Dent v. West Virginia (1889) 129 U.S. 114, 123.
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    • Janus, supra note 13, at 5.
    • Janus, supra note 13, at 5.
  • 200
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    • Schall v. Martin (1984) 467 U.S. 253.
    • Schall v. Martin (1984) 467 U.S. 253.
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    • Kansas v. Hendricks, supra note 33, at 358.
    • Kansas v. Hendricks, supra note 33, at 358.
  • 202
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    • 428 U.S. 262 (1976).
    • 428 U.S. 262 (1976).
  • 203
    • 79955662115 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Barefoot v. Estelle, 463 U.S. 880 (1983) at 896.
    • Barefoot v. Estelle, 463 U.S. 880 (1983) at 896.
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    • Id. at 901.
    • Id. at 901.
  • 205
    • 79955667684 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • "The differences in opinion go to the weight [of the evidence] and not the admissibility of such testimony⋯. Such disputes are within the province of the jury to resolve. Indeed, it is a fundamental premise of our entire system of criminal jurisprudence that the purpose of the jury is to sort out the true testimony from the false, the important matters, and, when called upon to do so, to give greater credence to one party's expert witnesses than another's." Id at 902. This followed the holding in Estelle v. Smith in which the Court held that the jury should receive all relevant information and was "in no sense disapproving the use of psychiatric testimony bearing on future dangerousness." 451 U.S. 454 (1981).
  • 206
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    • Schall v. Martin, supra note 174, at 271.
    • Schall v. Martin, supra note 174, at 271.
  • 207
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    • Sumner v. Shuman (1987) 483 U.S. 66.
    • Sumner v. Shuman (1987) 483 U.S. 66.
  • 208
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    • Meachum v. Fano (1976). 427 U.S. 215 (1976) at 226, citing Dent v. West Virginia (1889) 129 U.S. 114, 123.another's." Id at 902. This followed the holding in Estelle v. Smith in which the Court held that the jury should receive all relevant information and was "in no sense disapproving the use of psychiatric testimony bearing on future dangerousness." 451 U.S. 454 (1981).
    • Meachum v. Fano (1976). 427 U.S. 215 (1976) at 226, citing Dent v. West Virginia (1889) 129 U.S. 114, 123.another's." Id at 902. This followed the holding in Estelle v. Smith in which the Court held that the jury should receive all relevant information and was "in no sense disapproving the use of psychiatric testimony bearing on future dangerousness." 451 U.S. 454 (1981).
  • 209
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    • Schall v. Martin, supra note 174, at 271.
    • Schall v. Martin, supra note 174, at 271.
  • 210
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    • Sumner v. Shuman (1987) 483 U.S. 66.
    • Sumner v. Shuman (1987) 483 U.S. 66.
  • 211
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    • Meachum v. Fano (1976). 427 U.S. 215 (1976) at 226, citing Dent v. West Virginia (1889) 129 U.S. 114, 123.another's." Id at 902. This followed the holding in Estelle v. Smith in which the Court held that the jury should receive all relevant information and was "in no sense disapproving the use of psychiatric testimony bearing on future dangerousness." 451 U.S. 454 (1981).
    • Meachum v. Fano (1976). 427 U.S. 215 (1976) at 226, citing Dent v. West Virginia (1889) 129 U.S. 114, 123.another's." Id at 902. This followed the holding in Estelle v. Smith in which the Court held that the jury should receive all relevant information and was "in no sense disapproving the use of psychiatric testimony bearing on future dangerousness." 451 U.S. 454 (1981).
  • 212
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    • Schall v. Martin, supra note 174, at 271.
    • Schall v. Martin, supra note 174, at 271.
  • 213
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    • Sumner v. Shuman (1987) 483 U.S. 66.
    • Sumner v. Shuman (1987) 483 U.S. 66.
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    • Meachum v. Fano (1976). 427 U.S. 215 (1976) at 226, citing Dent v. West Virginia (1889) 129 U.S. 114, 123.another's." Id at 902. This followed the holding in Estelle v. Smith in which the Court held that the jury should receive all relevant information and was "in no sense disapproving the use of psychiatric testimony bearing on future dangerousness." 451 U.S. 454 (1981).
    • Meachum v. Fano (1976). 427 U.S. 215 (1976) at 226, citing Dent v. West Virginia (1889) 129 U.S. 114, 123.another's." Id at 902. This followed the holding in Estelle v. Smith in which the Court held that the jury should receive all relevant information and was "in no sense disapproving the use of psychiatric testimony bearing on future dangerousness." 451 U.S. 454 (1981).
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    • Schall v. Martin, supra note 174, at 271.
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    • Sumner v. Shuman (1987) 483 U.S. 66.
    • Sumner v. Shuman (1987) 483 U.S. 66.
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    • Meachum v. Fano (1976). 427 U.S. 215 (1976) at 226, citing Dent v. West Virginia (1889) 129 U.S. 114, 123.
    • Meachum v. Fano (1976). 427 U.S. 215 (1976) at 226, citing Dent v. West Virginia (1889) 129 U.S. 114, 123.
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    • Foucha v. Louisiana (1992) 504 U.S. 71.
    • Foucha v. Louisiana (1992) 504 U.S. 71.
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    • Kansas v. Hendricks, supra note 33, at 359.
    • Kansas v. Hendricks, supra note 33, at 359.
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    • Id. at 360.
    • Id. at 360.
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    • Id. at 357 (emphasis added).
    • Id. at 357 (emphasis added).
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    • Id. at 6, quoting American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th Ed., 522-23 (1994).
    • Id. at 6, quoting American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th Ed., 522-23 (1994).
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    • Id. at 6, citing American Psychiatric Association, at 525.
    • Id. at 6, citing American Psychiatric Association, at 525.
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    • Id. at 6.
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    • Id.
    • Id. http://www.dsm5.org/ProposedRevisions/Pages/proposedrevision.aspx? rid=416.
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    • Id. at 9.
    • Id. at 9.
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    • Hanson, supra note 96, at 66.
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    • Id. at 50.
    • Id. at 50.
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    • Id.
    • Id.
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    • Id. at 51.
    • Id. at 51.
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    • Rogers, supra note 163, at 598, citing R. Plutchik, Outward and Inward Directed Aggressiveness: The Interaction between Violence and Suicidality, 28 Pharmacopsychiatry 47-57 (1995, Supplement).
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    • Hanson, supra note 96, at 51.
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    • Hanson, supra note 126, at 2.
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    • Reporter's Transcript of Court Trial of People of the State of California v. Douglas Badger, County of San Diego, at 68.
    • Reporter's Transcript of Court Trial of People of the State of California v. Douglas Badger, County of San Diego, at 68.
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    • Id. at 26, and author's conversation with Badger's trial attorney, San Diego County Public Defender Richard Gates on Jan. 4, 2006.
    • Id. at 26, and author's conversation with Badger's trial attorney, San Diego County Public Defender Richard Gates on Jan. 4, 2006.
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    • Id. at 135.
    • Id. at 135.
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    • Kelly Hannah-Moffat, Criminogenic Needs and the Transformative Risk Subject: Hybridizations of Risk/Need in Penality, in Punishment and Society 29, 30 (2005).
    • Kelly Hannah-Moffat, Criminogenic Needs and the Transformative Risk Subject: Hybridizations of Risk/Need in Penality, in Punishment and Society 29, 30 (2005).
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    • The coding rules for the Static-99 begin by describing the nature of the instruments: "The Static-99 utilizes only static (unchangeable) factors that have been seen in the literature to correlate with sexual reconviction in adult males. The estimates of sexual and violent recidivism produced by the STATIC-99 can be thought of as a baseline for risk for violent and sexual reconviction." Harris, Phenix, et al., supra note 162, at 3. Thus there is not even a pretense that the instrument is designed to measure sexual deviance or mental illness.
    • The coding rules for the Static-99 begin by describing the nature of the instruments: "The Static-99 utilizes only static (unchangeable) factors that have been seen in the literature to correlate with sexual reconviction in adult males. The estimates of sexual and violent recidivism produced by the STATIC-99 can be thought of as a baseline for risk for violent and sexual reconviction." Harris, Phenix, et al., supra note 162, at 3. Thus there is not even a pretense that the instrument is designed to measure sexual deviance or mental illness.
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    • Id.
    • Id.
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    • Id. at 15, 18.
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    • Id. at 66.
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    • Wollert et al. contend that the Static-99R does not adequately account for the relationship between age and recidivism. As a result, it still overstates the risk of recidivism. Instead, Wollert et al. argue that "age-stratified" experience tables are a better method for taking age into account. Wollert et al., supra note 170.
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    • Arizona developed an intensive probation program for sex offenders deemed particularly dangerous. Research shows that it has been effective at lowering recidivism.
    • Arizona developed an intensive probation program for sex offenders deemed particularly dangerous. Research shows that it has been effective at lowering recidivism.
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    • See La Fond, supra note 12, at 494-95.
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    • Id. at 116-26. Levenson & D'Amora, supra note 35, reviewed the various studies of the efficacy of sex offender treatment and found that "although the research is not unequivocal, there is evidence to believe that treatment can be helpful for many sex offenders." Id. at 179. But see Harris, Rice, et al., supra note 120, at 421, who found that sex offender treatment was nonsignificantly associated with increased recidivism.
    • Id. at 116-26. Levenson & D'Amora, supra note 35, reviewed the various studies of the efficacy of sex offender treatment and found that "although the research is not unequivocal, there is evidence to believe that treatment can be helpful for many sex offenders." Id. at 179. But see Harris, Rice, et al., supra note 120, at 421, who found that sex offender treatment was nonsignificantly associated with increased recidivism.
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    • Human Rights Watch, Testing Justice (Mar. 31, 2009).
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    • LAPD Cuts Backlog of Untested DNS Cases in Half, Los Angeles Times, Oct. 5, 2009
    • LAPD Cuts Backlog of Untested DNS Cases in Half, Los Angeles Times, Oct. 5, 2009, http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/lanow/2009/10/lapd-cuts-backlog-of- untested-dnacases- in-half-.html.
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* 이 정보는 Elsevier사의 SCOPUS DB에서 KISTI가 분석하여 추출한 것입니다.