Pharmacologic approaches to cognitive rehabilitation

Cognitive Neurorehabilitation

Volumn , Issue , 2015, Pages 298-320

  McAllister, Thomas W ^a   Arnsten, Amy F T ^b  

^a DARTMOUTH HITCHCOCK MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^b YALE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Neurology and clinical neuroscience; Neuropsychology

Indexed keywords

EID: 80455169746     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781316529898.022     Document Type: Chapter

References (148)

1. Andlin-Sobocki, P., Jonsson, B., Wittchen, H.-U., & Olesen, J. (2005). Cost of disorders of the brain in Europe. European Journal of Neurology, 12, Suppl. 1, 1-27.
2. Aquilani, R., Iadarola, P., Boschi, F. et al. (2003). Reduced plasma levels of tyrosine, precursor of brain catecholamines, and of essential amino acids in patients with severe traumatic brain injury after rehabilitation. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 84, 1258-1265.
3. Aquilani, R., Verri, M., Iadarola, P. et al. (2004). Plasma precursors of brain catecholaminergic and serotonergic neurotransmitters in rehabilitation patients with ischemic stroke. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 85, 779-784.
4. Arciniegas, D. B. (2003). The cholinergic hypothesis of cognitive impairment caused by traumatic brain injury. Current Psychiatry Reports, 5, 391-399.
5. Arciniegas, D. B., & Silver, J. M. (2006). Pharmacotherapy of posttraumatic cognitive impairments. Behavioural Neurology, 17, 25-42.
6. Arciniegas, D., McAllister, T. W., & Kaufer, D. (2007). Cognitive impairment. In C. Coffey, T. W. McAllister, & J. Silver (Eds.), Handbook ofNeuropsychiatric Therapeutics (pp. 24-78). Philadelphia: Williams & Wilkins.
7. Arnsten, A. F. T. (1998). Catecholamine modulation of prefrontal cortical cognitive function. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 2, 436-447.
8. Arnsten, A. F., & Goldman-Rakic, P. S. (1985). Alpha 2-adrenergic mechanisms in prefrontal cortex associated with cognitive decline in aged nonhuman primates. Science, 230, 1273-1276.
9. Arnsten, A. F. T., & Li, B.-M. (2005). Neurobiology of executive functions: catecholamine influences on prefrontal cortical functions. Biological Psychiatry, 57, 1377-1384.
10. Arnsten, A. F., Cai, J. X., & Goldman-Rakic, P. S. (1988). The alpha-2 adrenergic agonist guanfacine improves memory in aged monkeys without sedative or hypotensive side effects: evidence for alpha-2 receptor subtypes. Journal of Neuroscience, 8, 4287-4298.
11. Arnsten, A. F. T., Cai, J. X., Murphy, B. L., & Goldman-Rakic, P. S. (1994). Dopamine D1 receptor mechanisms in the cognitive performance of young adult and aged monkeys. Psychopharmacology, 116, 143-151.
12. Artal-Sanz, M., & Tavernarakis, N. (2005). Proteolytic mechanisms in necrotic cell death and neurodegeneration. FEBS Letters, 579, 3287-3296.
13. Barch, D. M. (2004). Pharmacological manipulation of human working memory. Psychopharmacology, 174, 126-135.
14. Barch, D. M., & Carter, C. S. (2005). Amphetamine improves cognitive function in medicated individuals with schizophrenia and in healthy volunteers. Schizophrenia Research, 77, 43-58.
15. Ben-Yishay, Y., & Diller, L. (1993). Cognitive remediation in traumatic brain injury: update and issues. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 74, 204-213.
16. Berridge, C. W., Devilbiss, D. M., Andrzejewski, M. E. et al. (2006). Methylphenidate preferentially increases catecholamine neurotransmission within the prefrontal cortex at low doses that enhance cognitive function. Biological Psychiatry, 60, 1111-1120.
17. Biederman, J., Monuteaux, M. C., Doyle, A. E. et al. (2004). Impact of executive function deficits and attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) on academic outcomes in children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72, 757-766.
18. Birnbaum, S., Gobeske, K. T., Auerbach, J., Taylor, J. R., & Arnsten, A. F. (1999). A role for norepinephrine in stressinduced cognitive deficits: alpha-1-adrenoceptor mediation in the prefrontal cortex. Biological Psychiatry, 46, 1266-1274.
19. Birnbaum, S., Yuan, P. X., Wang, M. et al. (2004). Protein kinase C overactivity impairs prefrontal cortical regulation of working memory. Science, 306, 882-884.
20. Boyeson, M. G., & Feeney, D. M. (1984). The role of norepinephrine in recovery from brain injury. Society of Neuroscience Abstracts, 10, 68.
21. Budson, A. E., & Price, B. H. (2005). Memory dysfunction. New England Journal of Medicine, 352, 692-699.
22. Cai, J. X., & Arnsten, A. F. (1997). Dose-dependent effects of the dopamine D1 receptor agonists A77636 or SKF81297 on spatial working memory in aged monkeys. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 283, 183-189.
23. Carlson, S., Tanila, H., Rama, P., Mecke, E., & Pertovaara, A. (1992). Effects of medetomidine, an alpha-2 adrenoceptor agonist, and atipamezole, an alpha-2 antagonist, on spatial memory performance in adult and aged rats. Behavioral and Neural Biology, 58, 113-119.
24. Chao, M. V. (2003). Neurotrophins and their receptors: a convergence point for many signalling pathways. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 4, 299-309.
25. Cicerone, K. D. (2002). Remediation of "working attention" in mild traumatic brain injury. Brain Injury, 16, 185-195.
26. Clark, W., Raps, E. C., Tong, D. C., & Kelly, R. E. (2000). Cervene (Nalmefene) in acute ischemic stroke: final results of a phase III efficacy study. Stroke, 31, 1234-1239.
27. DeKosky, S., Goss, J., Miller, P. et al. (1994). Upregulation of nerve growth factor following cortical trauma. Experimental Neurology, 130, 173-177.
28. DeKosky, S. T., Kochanek, P. M., Clark, R. S. B., Ciallella, J. R., & Dixon, C. E. (1998). Secondary injury after head trauma: subacute and long-term mechanisms. Seminars in Clinical Neuropsychiatry, 3, 176-185.
29. Devi, G., & Silver, J. (2000). Approaches to memory loss in neuropsychiatric disorders. Seminars in Clinical Neuropsychiatry, 5, 259-265.
30. Dewar, D., & Graham, D. I. (1996). Depletion of choline acetyltransferase but preservation of M1 and M2 muscarinic receptor binding sites temporal cortex following head injury: a preliminary human postmorten study. Journal of Neurotrauma, 13, 181-187.
31. Dixon, C. E., Liu, S. J., Jenkins, L. W. et al. (1995). Time course of increased vulnerability of cholinergic neurotransmission following traumatic brain injury in the rat. Behavioural Brain Research, 70, 125-131.
32. Dixon, C. E., Flinn, P., Bao, J., Venya, R., & Hayes, R. L. (1997). Nerve growth factor attenuates cholinergic deficits following traumatic brain injury in rats. Experimental Neurology, 146, 479-490.
33. Elkind, M. S. V. (2005). Implications of stroke prevention trials: treatment of global risk. Neurology India, 65, 17-21.
34. Elliot, R., Sahakian, B. J., Matthews, K. et al. (1997). Effects of methylphenidate on spatial working memory and planning in healthy young adults. Psychopharmacology, 131, 196-206.
35. Elovic, E., & Zafonte, R. (2005). Prevention. In J. Silver, T. W. McAllister, & S. Yudofsky (Eds.), Textbook of Traumatic Brain Injury (pp. 727-748). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc.
36. Faden, A. I., Jacobs, T., & Holaday, J. (1981). Opiate antagonist improves neurologic recovery after spinal injury. Science, 211, 493-494.
37. Fan, J. B., Zhang, C. S., Gu, N. F. et al. (2005). Catechol-O-methyltransferase gene Val/Met functional polymorphism and risk of schizophrenia: a large-scale association study plusmeta-analysis. Biological Psychiatry, 57, 139-144.
38. Feeney, D. M., & Hovda, D. A. (1983). Amphetamine and apomorphine restore tactile placing after motor cortex injury in the cat. Psychopharmacology, 79, 67-71.
39. Feeney, D. M., & Sutton, R. L. (1987). Pharmacotherapy for recovery of function after brain injury. Critical Review of Neurobiology, 1987, 135-197.
40. Feeney, D. M., Boyeson, M. G., Linn, R. T., Murray, H. M., & Dail, W. G. (1981). Responses to cortical injury. 1. Methodology and local effects of contusions in the rat. Brain Research, 211, 67-77.
41. Flamm, E. S., Young, W., Demopoulos, H., Descrescito, V., & Tamasula, J. (1982). Experimental spinal cord injury: treatment with naloxone. Neurosurgery, 10, 227-231.
42. Franowicz, J. S., & Arnsten, A. F. (1998). The alpha-2a noradrenergic agonist, guanfacine, improves delayed response performance in young adult rhesus monkeys. Psychopharmacology, 136, 8-14.
43. Friedlander, R. M. (2003). Apoptosis and caspases in neurodegenerative diseases. New England Journal of Medicine, 348, 1365-1375.
44. Gennarelli, T., & Graham, D. (2005). Neuropathology. In J. Silver, T. W. McAllister, & S. Yudofsky (Eds.), Textbook of Traumatic Brain Injury (pp. 27-50). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, Inc.
45. Gentile, N., Smith, D., Burhans, C., & McIntosh, T. (1993). Cognitive and neurologic functions and hippocampal neuronal loss after nimodipine in fluid percussion brain injury. Journal of Neurotrauma, 10, S193.
46. Gilby, K. L., Sydserff, S. G., & Robertson, H. A. (2005). Differential neuroprotective effects for three GABApotentiating compounds in a model of hypoxia-ischemia. Brain Research, 1035, 196-205.
47. Gladstone, D., Black, S., & Hakim, A. (2002). Toward wisdom from failure: lessons from neuroprotective stroke trials and new therapeutic directions. Stroke, 33, 2123-2136.
48. Gladstone, D. J., Danells, C. J., Armesto, A. et al. (2006). Physiotherapy coupled with dextroamphetamine for rehabilitation after hemiparetic stroke: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Stroke, 37, 179-185.
49. Goldstein, L. B. (2003). Neuropharmacology of TBIinduced plasticity. Brain Injury, 17, 685-694.
50. Goldstein, L., & Hanley, G. (2006). Advances in primary stroke prevention. Stroke, 37, 317-319.
51. Granholm, A. C., Reyland, M., Albeck, D. et al. (2000). Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor is essential for postnatal survival of midbrain dopamine neurons. Journal of Neuroscience, 20, 3182-3190.
52. Greene, Y. M., Tariot, P. N., Wishart, H. et al. (2000). 12 week open trial of donepezil HCL in multiple sclerosis patients with associated cognitive impairment. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 20, 350-356.
53. Gutteridge, J., & Halliwell, B. (1990). The measurement and mechanism of lipid peroxidation in biological systems. Trends in Biochemical Sciences, 15, 129-135.
54. Hall, E., Yonkers, P., McCall, J., & Braughler, J. (1988). Effects of the 21-aminosteroid U74006F on experimental head injury in mice. Journal of Neurosurgery, 68, 456-461.
55. Hall, E., Yonkers, P., Horan, K., & Braughler, J. (1989). Correlation between attenuation of post-traumatic spinal cord ischemia and preservation of tissue vitamin E by the 21-aminosteroid U74006F. Evidence for an in vivo antioxidant mechanism. Journal of Neurotrauma, 6, 169-176.
56. Hayes, R., Galinet, B., Kulkarne, P., & Becker, D. (1983). Effects of naloxone on systemic and cerebral responses to experimental concussive brain injury in cats. Journal of Neurosurgery, 58, 720-728.
57. Hermann, D., Kilic, E., Kugler, S., Isenmann, S., & Bahr, M. (2001). Adenovirus-mediated glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) expression protects against subsequent cortical cold injury in rats. Neurobiology of Disease, 8, 964-973.
58. Hicks, R. R., Numan, S., Dhillon, H. S., Prasad, M. R., & Seroogy, K. B. (1997). Alterations in BDNF and NT-3 mRNAs in rat hippocampus after experimental brain trauma. Molecular Brain Research, 48, 401-406.
59. Hicks, R. R., Zhang, L., Dhillon, H. S., Prasad, M. R., & Seroogy, K. B. (1998). Expression of trkB mRNA is altered in rat hippocampus after experimental brain trauma. Molecular Brain Research, 59, 264-268.
60. Horn, J., & Limburg, M. (2000). Calcium antagonists for acute ischaemic stroke. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2, CD001928.
61. Hovda, D., Sutton, R., & Feeney, D. (1984). Amphetamine with experience promotes recovery of locomotor function after unilateral frontal cortex injury in the cat. Brain Research, 298, 358-361.
62. Hovda, D., Sutton, R., & Feeney, D. (1989). Amphetamineinduced recovery of visual cliff performance after bilateral visual cortex ablation in cats: measurements of depth perception thresholds. Behavioural Neuroscience, 103, 574-584.
63. Hovda, D. A., Yoshino, A., Kawamata, T., Katayama, Y., & Becker, D. P. (1991). Diffuse prolonged depression of cerebral oxidative metabolism following concussive brain injury in the rat: A cytochrome oxidase histochemistry study. Brain Research, 567, 1-10.
64. Jadad, A. R., Boyle, M., Cunningham, C., Kim, M., & Schachar, R. (1999). Treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Evidence Report: Technology Assessment, 11, i-viii.
65. Kempermann, G., Gast, D., & Gage, F. H. (2002). Neuroplasticity in old age: sustained fivefold induction of hippocampal neurogenesis by long-term environmental enrichment. Annals of Neurology, 52, 135-143.
66. Kim, B. T., Rao, V. L., Sailor, K. A., Bowen, K. K., & Dempsey, R. J. (2001). Protective effects of glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor on hippocampal neurons after traumatic brain injury in rats. Journal of Neurosurgery, 95, 674-679.
67. Kline, A. E., Yu, J., Massucci, J. L., Zafonte, R. D., & Dixon, C. E. (2002). Protective effects of the 5-HT1A receptor agonist 8-hydroxy-2-(di-n-propylamino)tetralin against traumatic brain injury-induced cognitive deficits and neuropathology in adult male rats. Neuroscience Letters, 333, 179-182.
68. Kobori, N., & Dash, P. K. (2006). Reversal of brain injuryinduced prefrontal glutamic acid decarboxylase expression and working memory deficits by D1 receptor antagonism. Journal of Neuroscience, 26, 4236-4246.
69. Ladurner, G., Kalvach, P., & Moessler, H. (2005). Neuroprotective treatment with cerebrolysin in patients with acute stroke: a randomised controlled trial. Journal of Neural Transmission, 112, 415-428.
70. Lang, U. E., Jockers-Scherubl, M. C., & Hellweg, R. (2004). State of the art of the neurotrophin hypothesis in psychiatric disorders: implications and limitations. Journal of Neural Transmission, 111, 387-411.
71. Langlois, J., Rutland-Brown, W., & Thomas, K. (2004). Traumatic Brain Injury in the United States: Emergency Department Visits, Hospitalizations, and Deaths. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control.
72. Li, B. M., & Mei, Z. T. (1994). Delayed-response deficit induced by local injection of the alpha 2-adrenergic antagonist yohimbine into the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in young adult monkeys. Behavioral and Neural Biology, 62, 134-139.
73. Lim, K. C., Lim, S. T., & Federoff, H. J. (2003). Neurotrophin secretory pathways and synaptic plasticity. Neurobiology of Aging, 24, 1135-1145.
74. Lodder, J., van Raak, L., Hilton, A., Hardy, E., & Kessels, A. (2006). Diazepam to improve acute stroke outcome: results of the early GABA-Ergic activation study in stroke trial. a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Cerebrovascular Diseases, 21, 120-127.
75. Luciana, M., & Collins, P. F. (1997). Dopaminergic modulation of working memory for spatial but not object cues in normal humans. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 9, 330-347.
76. Luciana, M., Depue, R. A., Arbisi, P., & Leon, A. (1992). Facilitation of working memory in humans by a D2 dopamine receptor agonist. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 4, 58-68.
77. Lyden, P., Jacoby, M., Schim, J. et al. (2001). The Clomethiazole Acute Stroke Study in tissue-type plasminogen activator-treated stroke (CLASS-T): final results. Neurology, 57, 1199-1205.
78. Lyden, P., Shuaib, A., Ng, K. et al. (2002). Clomethiazole Acute Stroke Study in Ischemic Stroke (CLASS-I): final Results. Stroke, 33, 122-129.
79. Martinsson, L., & Eksborg, S. (2004). Drugs for stroke recovery: the example of amphetamines. Drugs and Aging, 21, 67-79.
80. Martinsson, L., & Wahlgren, N. G. (2003). Safety of dexamphetamine in acute ischemic stroke: a randomized, double-blind, controlled dose-escalation trial. Stroke, 34, 475-481.
81. Mauler, F., & Horvath, E. (2005). Neuroprotective efficacy of repinotan HCl, a 5-HT1A receptor agonist, in animal models of stroke and traumatic brain injury. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism, 25, 451-459.
82. Mauler, F., Fahrig, T., Horvath, E., & Jork, R. (2001). Inhibition of evoked glutamate release by the neuroprotective 5-HT(1A) receptor agonist BAY x 3702 in vitro and in vivo. Brain Research, 888, 150-157.
83. McAllister, T. W., Flashman, L. A., Sparling, M. B., & Saykin, A. J. (2004). Working memory deficits after mild traumatic brain injury: catecholaminergic mechanisms and prospects for catecholaminergic treatment - a review. Brain Injury, 18, 331-350.
84. McDermott, K., Raghupathi, R., Fernandez, S. et al. (1997). Delayed administration of basic fibroblast growth. Journal of Neurotrauma, 14, 191-200.
85. McDowell, S., Whyte, J., & D’Esposito, M. (1998). Differential effect of a dopaminergic agonist on prefrontal function in traumatic brain injury patients. Brain, 121, 1155-1164.
86. McIntosh, T. K. (1994). Neurochemical sequelae of traumatic brain injury: therapeutic implications. Cerebrovascular and Brain Metabolism Reviews, 6, 109-162.
87. McIntosh, T., Hayes, R., DeWitt, D. S., Agura, V., & Faden, A. I. (1987). Endogenous opioids may mediate secondary damage after experimental brain injury. American Journal of Physiology, 253, E565-E574.
88. McIntosh, T., Fernyah, S., & Faden, A. I. (1991). The effects of naloxone hydrochloride treatment after experimental traumatic brain injury in the rat. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism, Suppl. 2, S734.
89. McIntosh, T., Thomas, M., Smith, D., & Banbury, M. K. (1992). The novel 21-aminosteroid U74006F attenuates cerebral edema and improves survival after brain injury in the rat. Journal of Neurotrauma, 9, 33-40.
90. McIntosh, T. K., Juhler, M., & Wieloch, T. (1998). Novel pharmacologic strategies in the treatment of experimental traumatic brain injury: 1998. Journal of Neurotrauma, 15, 731-769.
91. Miller, L., Lyeth, B., Jenkins, L. et al. (1990). Excitatory amino acid receptor subtype binding following traumatic brain injury. Brain Research, 526, 103-107.
92. Miller, N., & Adams, J. (2005). Alcohol and drug disorders. In J. Silver, T. W. McAllister, & S. Yudofsky (Eds.), Textbook of Traumatic Brain Injury (pp. 509-532). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc.
93. Miner, L., Jedema, H., Moore, F. et al. (2006). Chronic stress increases the plasmalemmal distribution of the norepinephrine transporter and the coexpression of tyrosine hydroxylase in norepinephrine axons in the prefrontal cortex. Neuroscience and Behavioral Physiology, 26, 1571-1578.
94. Monaghan, D., & Cotman, C. (1986). Identification and properties of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors in rat brain plasma membranes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 83, 7532-7536.
95. Murdoch, I., Perry, E. K., Court, J. A., Graham, D. I., & Dewar, D. (1998). Cortical cholinergic dysfunction after human head injury. Journal of Neurotrauma, 15, 295-305.
96. Murdoch, I., Nicoll, J. A., Graham, D. I., & Dewar, D. (2002). Nucleus basalis of Meynert pathology in the human brain after fatal head injury. Journal of Neurotrauma, 19, 279-284.
97. Nakanishi, S. (1992). Molecular characterization of the family of metabotropic glutamate receptors. In R. Simon (Eds.), Excitatory Amino Acids (pp. 21-22). New York, NY: Time Medical Publishers.
98. Narayan, R., Michel, M., Ansell, B. et al. (2002). Clinical trials in head injury. Journal of Neurotrauma, 19, 503-557.
99. Ohman, J., Braakman, R., & Legout, V. (2001). Repinotan (BAY x 3702): a 5HT1A agonist in traumatically brain injured patients. Journal of Neurotrauma, 18, 1313-1321.
100. Okiyama, K., Smith, D., Thomas, M., & McIntosh, T. (1992). Evaluation of a novel calcium channel blocker, (s)-emopamil, on regional cerebral edema and neurobehavioral function after experimental brain injury. Journal of Neurosurgery, 77, 607-615.
101. Oyesiku, N., Evans, C., Houston, S. et al. (1999). Regional changes in the expression of neurotrophic factors and their receptors following acute traumatic brain injury in the adult rat brain. Brain Research, 833, 161-172.
102. Philips, M. F., Mattiasson, G., Wieloch, T. et al. (2001). Neuroprotective and behavioral efficacy of nerve growth factor-transfected hippocampal progenitor cell transplants after experimental traumatic brain injury. Journal of Neurosurgery, 94, 765-774.
103. Povlishock, J., & Katz, D. (2005). Update of neuropathology and neurological recovery after traumatic brain injury. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 20, 76-94.
104. Prasad, M. R., Tzigaret, C., Smith, D. H., Soares, H., & McIntosh, T. K. (1993). Decreased alpha-adrenergic receptors after experimental brain injury. Journal of Neurotrauma, 9, 269-279.
105. Rama, P., Linnankoski, I., Tanila, H., Pertovaara, A., & Carlson, S. (1996). Medetomidine, atipamezole, and guanfacine in delayed response performance of aged monkeys. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior, 55, 415-422.
106. Ramos, B., Colgan, L., Nou, E. et al. (2005). The beta-1 adrenergic antagonist, betaxolol, improves working memory performance in rats and monkeys. Biological Psychiatry, 58, 894-900.
107. Ramos, B. P., Stark, D., Verduzco, L., van Dyck, C. H., & Arnsten, A. F. T. (2006). _2A-adrenoceptor stimulation improves prefrontal cortical regulation of behavior through inhibition of cAMP signaling in aging animals. Learning and Memory, 13, 770-776.
108. Ray, S., Dixon, C., & Banik, N. (2002). Molecular mechanisms in the pathogenesis of traumatic brain injury. Histology and Histopathology, 17, 1137-1152.
109. Raz, A. (2004). Anatomy of attentional networks. Anatomical Record New Anatomist, 281, 21-36.
110. Raz, A., & Buhle, J. (2006). Typologies of attentional networks. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 7, 367-379.
111. Robinson, S., Lyeth, B. G., Jenkins, L. et al. (1987). The effect of naloxone pretreatment on behavioral responses to concussive brain injury in the rat. Neuroscience Abstracts, 2, 1254.
112. Romhanyi, R., Tandian, D., Hovda, D. A. et al. (1990). Catecholaminergic stimulation enhances recovery of function following concussive brain injury. Journal of Neurotrauma, 9, 164.
113. Royo, N., Schouten, J., Fulp, C. et al. (2003). From cell death to neuronal regeneration: building a new brain after traumatic brain injury. Journal of Neuropathology and Experimental Neurology, 62, 801-811.
114. Saatman, K. E., Murai, H., Bartus, R. et al. (1996). Calpain inhibitor AK295 attenuates motor and cognitive deficits following experimental brain injury in the rat. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 93, 3428-3433.
115. Samochocki, M., & Strosznaider, J. (1993). Modulatory action of arachidonic acid on GABAA/chloride channel receptor function in adult and aged brain cortex membranes. Neurochemistry International, 23, 261-267.
116. Sanada, T., Nakamura, T., Nishimura, M., Isayama, K., & Pitts, L. S. (1993). Effect of U74006F on neurologic function and brain edema after fluid percussion injury in rats. Journal of Neurotrauma, 10, 65-71.
117. Sanossian, N., & Oybiagele, B. (2006). Multimodality stroke prevention. The Neurologist, 12, 14-31.
118. Sariola, H., & Saarma, M. (2003). Novel functions and signalling pathways for GDNF. Journal of Cell Science, 116, 3855-3862.
119. Sawaguchi, T., & Goldman-Rakic, P. S. (1991). D1 dopamine receptors in prefrontal cortex: involvement in working memory. Science, 251, 947-950.
120. Schaffer, D. V., & Gage, F. H. (2004). Neurogenesis and neuroadaptation. NeuroMolecular Medicine, 5, 1-9.
121. Schaper, C., Zhu, Y., Kouklei, M., Culmsee, C., & Krieglstein, J. (2000). Stimulation of 5-HT(1A) receptors reduces apoptosis after transient forebrain ischemia in the rat. Brain Research, 883, 41-50.
122. Schwartz-Bloom, R. D., & Sah, R. (2001). Gammaaminobutyric acid(A) neurotransmission and cerebral ischemia. Journal of Neurochemistry, 77, 353-371.
123. Schwartz-Bloom, R., Cook, T., & Yu, X. (1996). GABA-gated chloride channels in brain by the arachidonic acid metabolite, thromboxane A2. Neuropharmacology, 35, 1347-1353.
124. Shimizu, S., Royo, N., & Saatman, K. (2002). Evaluation of the temporal and regional alterations in endogenous GDNF expression after experimental traumatic brain injury. Journal of Neurotrauma, 19, 1344.
125. Shimizu, S., Fulp, C., Royo, N., & McIntosh, T. (2005). Pharmacotherapy of prevention. In J. Silver, T. W. McAllister, & S. Yudofsky (Eds.), Textbook of Traumatic Brain Injury (pp. 699-726). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc.
126. Smith, W. (2004). Pathophysiology of focal cerebral ischemia: a therapeutic perspective. Journal of Vascular and Interventional Radiology, 15, S3-S12.
127. Steere, J. C., & Arnsten, A. F. (1997). The alpha-2A noradrenergic receptor agonist guanfacine improves visual object discrimination reversal performance in aged rhesus monkeys. Behavioral Neuroscience, 111, 883-891.
128. Stroemer, R. P., Kent, T. A., & Hulsebosch, C. E. (1998). Enhanced neocortical neural sprouting, synaptogenesis, and behavioral recovery with D-amphetamine therapy after neocortical infarction in rats. Stroke, 29, 2381-2393.
129. Sutton, R. L., & Feeney, D. M. (1992). Alpha-noradrenergic agonists and antagonists affect recovery and maintenance of beam-walking ability after sensorimotor cortex ablation in the rat. Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience, 4, 1-11.
130. Sutton, R., Hovda, D., & Feeney, D. (1989). Amphetamine accelerates recovery of locomotor function following bilateral frontal cortex ablation in cats. Behavioural Neuroscience, 103, 837-841.
131. Tandian, D., Romhanyi, R., Hovda, D. A. et al. (1990). Amphetamine enhances both behavior and metabolic recovery following fluid percussion brain injury. Journal of Neurotrauma, 9, 174.
132. Tanila, H., Rama, P., & Carlson, S. (1996). The effects of prefrontal intracortical microinjections of an alpha-2 agonist, alpha-2 antagonist and lidocaine on the delayed alternation performance of aged rats. Brain Research Bulletin, 40, 117-119.
133. Teal, P., Silver, F. L., & Simard, D. (2005). The BRAINS study: safety, tolerability, and dose-finding of repinotan in acute stroke. Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences, 32, 61-67.
134. Teasdale, G. (1991). A randomized trial of nimodipine in severe head injury: HIT 1. Journal of Neurotrauma, 37, S545-S550.
135. Tekin, S., & Cummings, J. L. (2002). Frontal-subcortical neuronal circuits and clinical neuropsychiatry: an update. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 53, 647-654.
136. Tobias, C., & Bullock, M. (2004). Critical appraisal of neuroprotection trials in head injury: what have we learned. NeuroRx, 1, 71-79.
137. Vijayraghavan, S., Wang, M., Birnbaum, S. et al. (2007). Inverted-U dopamine D1 receptor actions on prefrontal neurons engaged in working memory. Nature Neuroscience, 10, 376-384.
138. Vink, R., McIntosh, T., Romhanyi, R., & Faden, A. I. (1990). Opiate antagonist nalmefene improves intracellular free Mg2+, bioenergetic state and neurological outcome following traumatic brain injury in rats. Journal of Neuroscience, 10, 3524-3530.
139. Wade, D. T. (1996). Epidemiology of disabling neurological disease: how and why does disability occur? Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 61, 242-249.
140. Wahlgren, N. G., & Ahmed, N. (2004). Neuroprotection in cerebral ischaemia: facts and fancies: the need for new approaches. Cerebrovascular Diseases, 17, Suppl. 1, 153-166.
141. Wahlgren, N. G., Ranasinha, K. W., Rosolacci, T. et al. (1999). Clomethiazole acute stroke study (CLASS): results of a randomized, controlled trial of clomethiazole versus placebo in 1360 acute stroke patients. Stroke, 30, 21-28.
142. Walker-Batson, D., Curtis, S., Nataraian, R. et al. (2001). A double-blind, placebo-controlled study of the use of amphetamine in the treatment of aphasia. Stroke, 32, 2093-2098.
143. Wang, M., Ramos, B., Paspalas, C. et al. (2007). A-2Aadrenoceptors strengthen working memory networks by inhibiting cAMP-HCN channel signaling in prefrontal cortex. Cell, 129, 397-410.
144. Whyte, J., Polansky, M., Cavallucci, C. et al. (1996). Inattentive behavior after traumatic brain injury. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 2, 274-281.
145. Whyte, J., Vaccaro, M., Grieg-Neff, P., & Hart, T. (2002). Psychostimulant use in the rehabilitation of individuals with traumatic brain injury. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 17, 284-299.
146. Williams, G. V., & Goldman-Rakic, P. S. (1995). Modulation of memory fields by dopamine D1 receptors in prefrontal cortex. Nature, 376, 572-575.
147. Young, W. F., Flamm, E. S., Demopoulos, H., Tomasula, J., & Decrescito, V. (1981). Naloxone ameliorates post-traumatic ischemia in experimental spinal contusion. Journal of Neurosurgery, 55, 209-219.
148. Zhu, J., Hamm, R. J., Reeves, T. M., Povlishock, J. T., & Phillips, L. L. (2000). Postinjury administration of L-deprenyl improves cognitive function and enhances neuroplasticity after traumatic brain injury. Experimental Neurology, 166, 136-152.