Ebola and Marburg hemorrhagic fever viruses: Update on filoviruses;Les fièvres hémorragiques à virus Ebola et Marburg: l'actualité des filovirus

Medecine Tropicale

Volumn 71, Issue 2, 2011, Pages 111-121

  Leroy, E ^a,b   Baize, S ^c   Gonzalez, J P ^a,d  

^a CENTRE INTERNATIONAL DE RECHERCHES MÉDICALES DE FRANCEVILLE   (Gabon)

^b University de Montpellier   (France)

^c Institut Pasteur   (France)

^d Mondialisation du Développement et des Partenariats MAEE Ministère des Affaires étrangères et Européennes   (France)

Author keywords

Ebola; Emergence; Marburg; Reservoir; Virus

Indexed keywords

ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME; ARTICLE; BIOLOGICAL WARFARE; CENTRAL AFRICA; CHOLERA; CONGO; DEATH; DENGUE; EBOLA HEMORRHAGIC FEVER; EBOLA VIRUS; EPIDEMIC; FEVER; FILOVIRUS; GABON; HUMAN; MALARIA; MALNUTRITION; MARBURG HEMORRHAGIC FEVER; MARBURG VIRUS; MORTALITY; NONHUMAN; VIRUS VIRULENCE; ANGOLA; ANIMAL; COTE D'IVOIRE; DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC CONGO; FILOVIRIDAE; IMMUNOLOGY; INCIDENCE; ISOLATION AND PURIFICATION; KENYA; PATHOGENICITY; PREVALENCE; REVIEW; SOUTH AFRICA; SUDAN; UGANDA;

EBOLA VACCINE; VIRUS VACCINE;

ANGOLA; ANIMALS; COTE D'IVOIRE; DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO; EBOLA VACCINES; EBOLAVIRUS; FILOVIRIDAE; GABON; HEMORRHAGIC FEVER, EBOLA; HUMANS; INCIDENCE; KENYA; MARBURG VIRUS DISEASE; MARBURGVIRUS; PREVALENCE; SOUTH AFRICA; SUDAN; UGANDA; VIRAL VACCINES;

EID: 79960900481     PISSN: 0025682X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (174)

1. Feldmann H, Geisbert TW. Jahrling PB. Klenk HD. Nelesov SV, Peters CJ. et al. Filoviridae. In "Fauquet CM, Mayo MA, Maniloff J, Desselberger U, Ball LA. Virus taxonomy : VIIth report of the international committee on taxonomy of viruses ". Elsevier Academic Press ed. London, UK, 2005,645-53.
2. Sanchez A, Geisbert TW, Feldmann H. Filoviridae : Marburg and Ebola viruses. In " Knipe DM, Howley PM. Fields virology " Lippincott Williams and Williams, ed. Philadelphia, 2007, 1409-48.
3. Kuhn JH. Filoviruses. A compendium of 40 years of epidemiological, clinical, and laboratory studies. Arch Virol Suppl 2008; 20: 13-360.
4. Martini GA, Siegert R. Marburg virus disease. Springer ed. New York, 1971.
5. Kiley MP, Regnery RL, Johnson KM. Ebola virus : Identification of virion structural proteins. J Gen Virol 1980;49:333-41.
6. Feldmann H. Kiley MP. Classification, structure, and replication of filoviruses. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 1999; 235 : 1-21.
7. Sanchez A, Khan A, Zaki SR. Nabel GJ, Ksiazek TG, Peters CJ. Filoviridae : Marburg and Ebola viruses. In "Knipe DM, Howley PM. Fields Virology ". Lippincott Williams & Wilkins ed, Philadelphia, 2001, pp 1279-304.
8. Huang Y, Xu L, Sun Y, Nabel GJ. The assembly of Ebola virus nucleocapsid requires virion-associated proteins 35 and 24 and posttranslational modification of nucleoprotein. Mol Cell 2002; 10: 307-16.
9. Mühlberger E. Weik M, Volchkov VE, Klenk H-D, Becker S. Comparison of the transcription and replication strategies of Marburg and Ebola virus by using artificial replication systems. J Virol 1999; 73:2333-2342.
10. Volchkov VE. Volchkova VA, Miihlberger E. Kolesnikova LV. Weik M. Dolnik O, el al. Recovery of infectious Ebola virus from complementary DNA; RNA editing of the GP gene and viral cytotoxicity. Science 2001; 291 : 1965-69.
11. Noda T, Sagara H, Suzuki E, Takada A, Kida H, Kawaoka Y. Ebola virus VP40 drives the formation of virus-like filamentous particles along with GP. J Virol 2002; 76 : 4855-65.
12. Han Z, Boshra H. Sunyer JO, Zwiers SH. Paragas J, Harty RN. Biochemical and functional characterization of the Ebola virus VP24 protein : Implications for a role in virus assembly and budding. J Virol 2003; 77 : 1793-800.
13. Watanabe S, Watanabe T, Noda T, Takada A, Feldmann H. Jasenosky LD, et al Production of novel Ebola virus-like particles from cDNAs; An alternative to Ebola virus generation by reverse genetics. J Virol 2004; 78 : 999-1005.
14. Bamberg S. Kolesnikova L, Moller P, Klenk HD, Becker S. VP24 of Marburg virus influences formation of infectious particles. J Virol 2005; 79 : 13421-33.
15. Noda T, Watanabe S, Sagara H, Kawaoka Y. Mapping of the VP40-binding regions of the nucleoprotein of Ebola virus. J Virol 2007; 81 : 3554-62.
16. Johnson RF, McCarthy SE, Godlewski PJ, Harty RN. Ebola virus VP35-VP40 interaction is sufficient for packaging 3E-5E minigenome RNA into virus like particles. J Virol 2006; 80 : 5135-44.
17. Ruigrok RW, Schoehn G. Dessen A, Forest E, Volchkov V, Dolnik O, et al. Structural characteri- zation and membrane binding properties of the matrix protein VP40 of Ebola virus. J Mol Biol 2000; 300: 103-12.
18. Basler CF, Mikulasova A, Martinez-Sobrido L. Paragas J, Muhlberger E, Bray M, el al. The Ebola virus VP35 protein inhibits activation of interferon regulatory factor 3. J Virol 2003; 77 : 7945-56.
19. Hartman AL, Towner JS, Nichol ST. A C-terminal basic amino acid motif of Zaire Ebolavirus VP35 is essential for type I interferon antagonism and displays high identity with the RNA-binding domain of another interferon antagonist, the NS1 protein of influenza A virus. Virology 2004; 328 : 177-84.
20. Cardenas WB, Loo YM, Gale M. Jr., Hartman AL, Kimberlin CR, Martinez-Sobrido L, el al. Ebola virus VP35 protein binds double-stranded RNA and inhibits alpha/beta interferon production induced by RIG-I signaling. J Virol 2006; 80 : 5168-78.
21. Hartman AL, Bird BH, Towner JS, Antoniadou ZA. Zaki SR. Nichol ST. Inhibition of IRF-3 activation by VP35 is critical for the high level of virulence of Ebola virus. J Virol 2008; 82 : 2699-704.
22. Prins KC, Cardenas WB, Basler CF. Ebola virus protein VP35 impairs the function of interferon regulatory factor-activating kinases IKKepsilon and TBK-1. J Virol 2009: 83 : 3069-77.
23. Chang TH. Kubota T, Matsuoka M, Jones S, Bradfute SB, Bray M, el al. Ebola Zaire virus blocks type I interferon production by exploiting the host SUMO modification machinery. PLoS Pathos 2009; 5 : el000493.
24. Sanchez A, Trappier SG, Mahy BWJ, Peters CJ, Nichol ST. The virion glycoproteins of Ebola viruses are encoded in two reading frames and are expressed through transcriptional editing. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1996; 93 : 3602-07.
25. Volchkov VE, Feldmann H, Volchkova VA. Klenk H-D. Processing of the Ebola virus glycoprotein by the proprotein convertase furin. Pmc Natl Acad Sci USA 1998; 95 : 5762-67.
26. Volchkov VE, Volchkova VA, Slenczka W, Klenk H-D, Feldmann H. Release of viral glycoproteins during Ebola virus infection. Virology 1998; 245 : 110-19.
27. Volchkov VE. Blinov VM, Netesov SV. The envelope glycoprotein of Ebola virus contains an immunosuppressive-like domain similar to oncogenic retroviruses. FEBS 1992; 305 : 181-84.
28. Wool-Lewis RJ. Bates P. Characterization of Ebola virus entry by using pseudotyped viruses : Identification of receptor-deficient cell lines. J Virol 1998; 72 : 3155-60.
29. Chepurnov AA, Tuzova MN. Ternovoy VA, Chernukhin IV. Suppressive effect of Ebola virus on T cell proliferation in vitro is provided by a 125-kDa GP viral protein. Immunol Leti 1999; 68 : 257-61.
30. Yang ZY, Ductal HJ, Sullivan NJ, Sanchez A, Nabel EG, Nabel GJ. Identification of the Ebola virus glycoprotein as the main viral determinant of vascular cell cytotoxicity and injury. Nature Med 2000; 6 : 886-89.
31. Chan SY, Speck RF. Ma MC, Goldsmith MA. Distinct mechanisms of entry by envelope glycoproteins of Marburg and Ebola (Zaire) viruses. J Virol 2000; 74: 4933-7.
32. Chan SY, Empig CJ, Welte FJ, Speck RF, Schmaljohn A. Kreisberg JF, el al. Folate receptor-alpha is a cofactor for cellular entry by Marburg and Ebola viruses. Cell 2001; 106: 117-26.
33. Yaddanapudi K, Palacios G, Towner JS, Chen I, Sariol CA, Nichol ST, et al. Implication of a retro-virus-like glycoprotein peptide in the immunopa-thogenesis of Ebola and Marburg viruses. FASEB J 2006;20:2519-30.
34. Volchkova VA, Feldmann H, Klenk H-D, Volchkov VE. The nonstructural small glycoprotein sGP of Ebola virus is secreted as an antiparallel-orientated homodimer. Virology 1998; 250 : 408-14.
35. Feldmann H, Volchkov VE, Volchkova VA, Stroher U, Klenk HD. Biosynthesis and role of filoviral glycoproteins. J Gen Virol 2001; 82 : 2839-48.
36. Dolnik O. Volchkova V, Garten W, Carbonnelle C, Becker S, Kahnt J, et al. Ectodomain shedding of the glycoprotein GP of Ebola virus. Embo J 2004; 23 : 2175-84.
37. Smith CEG, Simpson DIH, Bowen ETW. Fatal human disease from vervet monkeys. Lancet 1967; II: 1119-21.
38. Martini GA. Marburg agent disease in man. Trans R Soc Tmp Med Hyg 1969; 63 : 295-302.
39. Gear JS, Cassel GA, Gear AJ, Trappier B, Clausen L, Meyers AM, el al. Outbreak of Marburg virus disease in Johannesburg. Br Med J 1975; 4 : 489-93.
40. Smith DH. Isaacson M. Johnson KM. Bagshawe A. Johnson BK, Swanapoel R, el al. Marburg-virus disease in Kenya. Lancet 1982; 1: 816-20.
41. Johnson ED, Johnson BK, Silverstein D, Tukei P, Geisbert TW, Sanchez AN, el al. Characterization of a new Marburg virus isolated from a 1987 fatal case in Kenya. Arch Virol Suppl 1996; II : 101-14.
42. Bausch DG, Borchert M, Grein T, Roth C, Swanepoel R, Libande ML, et al. Risk factors for Marburg hemorrhagic fever. Democratic Republic of the Congo. Emerg Infect Dis 2003: 9 : 1531-7.
43. Bausch DG, Nichol ST, Muyembe-Tamfum JJ, Borchert M, Rollin PE. Sieurs H, et al. Marburg hemorrhagic fever associated with multiple genetic lineages of virus. N Engl J Med 2006; 355 : 909-19.
44. Colebunders R, Tshomba A, Van Kerkhove MD, Bausch DG, Campbell P, Libande M, el al. Marburg hemorrhagic fever in Durba and Watsa, Democratic Republic of the Congo : Clinical documentation, features of illness, and treatment. J Infect Dis 2007; 196 Suppl 2 : S148-53.
45. Towner JS, Khristova ML, Sealy TK, Vincent MJ, Erickson BR, Bawiec DA, el al. Marburgvirus genomics and association with a large hemorrhagic fever outbreak in Angola. J Virol 2006; 80 : 6497-516.
46. Towner JS, Amman BR, Sealy TK. Carroll SA, Comer JA, Kemp A, el al. Isolation of genetically diverse Marburg viruses from Egyptian fruit bats. PLaS Pathog 2009; 5 : e 1000536.
47. Hartman AL, Towner JS, Nichol ST. Ebola and Marburg hemorrhagic fever. Clin Lab Med 2010; 30: 161-77.
48. Smith DIH. Ebola haemorrhagic fever in Sudan. 1976. Bull World Health Organ 1978; 56 : 247-70.
49. Johnson KM. Ebola haemorrhagic fever in Zaire, 1976. Bull World Health Organ 1978: 56 : 271 -93.
50. Heymann DL, Weisfeld JS, Webb PA, Johnson KM, Cairns T, Berquist H. Ebola hemorrhagic fever : Tandala, 1977-1978. J Infect Dis 1980; 142:372-76.
51. Baron RC, McCormick JB, Zubeir OA. Ebola virus disease in southern Sudan : Hospital dissemination and intrafamilial spread. Bull World Health Organ 1983; 61 : 997-1003.
52. Le Guenno B, Formenty P, Wyers M, Gounon P. Walker F, Boesch C. Isolation and partial characterisation of a new strain of Ebola. The Lancet 1995; 345 : 1271-74.
53. Formenty P, Hatz C, Le Guenno B, Stoll A, Rogenmoser P. Wildmer A. Human infection due to Ebola virus, subtype Côte d'Ivoire : Clinical and biologic presentation. J Infect Dis 1999; 179 : S48-S53.
54. Khan AS, Tshioko FK, Heymann DL, Lc Guenno B. Nabeth P, Kerstiens DL, et al. The reemergence of Ebola hemorrhagic fever. Democratic Republic of the Congo, 1995. J Infect Dis 1999; 179 : S76-S86.
55. Georges AJ, Leroy EM, Renaut AA, Tevi Benissan C, Nabias RJ, Trinh Ngoc M. el al. Ebola hemorrhagic fever outbreaks in Gabon. 1994-1997 : Epidemiologic and Health control issues. J Infect Dis 1999; 179 : S65-S75.
56. Amblard J, Obiang P, Edzang S, Prehaud C. Bouloy M, Le Guenno B. Identification of the Ebola virus in Gabon in 1994. Lancet 1997; 349 : 181 -82.
57. Georges-Courbol M-C, Lu C-Y, Lansoud-Soukate J, Leroy E, Baize S. Isolation and partial molecular characterisation of a strain of Ebola virus during a recent epidemic of viral haemorrhagic fever in Gabon. The Lancet 1997; 349; 181.
58. Georges-Courbot M-C, Sanchez A, Lu C-Y, Baize S, Leroy E, Lansoud-Soukate J, et til. Isolation and phylogenetic characterization of Ebola viruses causing different outbreaks in Gabon. Emerg Inf Dis 1997; 1; 59-62.
59. Leroy EM, Souquière S, Rouquet P, Drevet D. Re-emergence of Ebola haemorrhagic fever in Gabon. Lancet 2002; 359 : 712.
60. Leroy EM, Rouquet P, Formenty P. Souquière S, Kilbourne A, Froment J-M, el al. Multiple Ebola virus transmission events and rapid decline of central african wildlife. Science 2004; 303 : 387-90.
61. Pourrai X, Kumulungui B. Wittmann T, Moussavou G, Délicat A. Yaba P. et al. The natural History of Ebola virus in Africa. Microbes Infecí 2005; 7; 1005-14.
62. Formenty P, Leroy EM, Epelboin A, Libama F, Lenzi M, Sudeck H, el al. Detection of Ebola virus in oral fluid specimens during outbreaks of Ebola virus hemorrhagic fever in the Republic of Congo. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 42 : 1521-6.
63. Lamunu M, Luiwama JJ, Kamugisha J, Opio A. Nambooze J, Ndayimirije N, et al. Containing a haemorrhagic fever epidemic : The Ebola experience in Uganda (October 2000-January 2001). Ini J Infect Dis 2004; 8: 27-37.
64. Okware SI, Omaswa FG, Zaramba S, Opio A, Lutwama JJ, Kamugisha J, el al. An outbreak of Ebola in Uganda. Trop Meti Ini Health 2002; 7 : 1068-75.
65. Towner JS. Rollin PE. Bausch DG. Sanchez A, Crary SM, Vincent M. el al. Rapid diagnosis of Ebola hemorrhagic fever by reverse transcription-PCR in an outbreak setting and assessment of patient viral load as a predictor of outcome. J Virol 2004; 78:4330-41.
66. Onyango CO. Opoka ML. Ksiazek TG. Formenty P. Ahmed A, Tukei PM, el at. Laboratory diagnosis of Ebola hemorrhagic fever during an outbreak in Yambio, Sudan, 2004. J Infect Dis 2007; 196 Suppl 2; S193-8.
67. Towner JS, Sealy TK, Khristova ML. Albarino CG, Conlan S, Reeder SA, et al. Newly discovered Ebola virus associated with hemorrhagic fever outbreak in Uganda. PLoS Palhog 2008; 4 : e 1000212.
68. Jahrling PB, Geisbert TW, Dalgard DW. Johnson ED, Ksiazek TG. Hall WC, el al. Preliminary report : Isolation of Ebola virus from monkeys imported to USA. Lancet 1990; 335 : 502-05.
69. Dalgard DW, Hardy RJ, Pearson SL, Pucak GJ, Quander RV, Zack PM, et al. Combined simian hemorrhagic fever and Ebola virus infection in Cynomolgus monkeys. Lab Anim Sci 1992; 42 : 152-57.
70. Hayes CG, Burans JP, Ksiazek TG, Del Rosario RA, Miranda MEG, Manaloto CR, el al. Outbreak of fatal illness among captive macaques in the Philippines caused by an Ebola-related filoviras. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1992; 46 : 664-71.
71. Rollin PE. Williams RJ, Bressler DS, Pearson S, Coningham M, Pucak G, et al. Ebola (subtype Reston) virus among quarantined nonhuman primates recently imported from the Philippines to the United States. J Infecí Dis 1999; 179 : SI08-S14.
72. Miranda MEG. White ME, Dayrit MM, Hayes CG, Ksiazek TG, Burans JP. Seroepidemiological study of filoviras related to Ebola in the Philippines. Lancet 1991; 337 : 425-26.
73. Miranda ME, Ksiazek TG, Retuya TJ, Khan AS, Sanchez A, Fulhorst CF. et al. Epidemiology of Ebola (subtype Reston) virus in the Philippines, 1996. J Infect Dis 1999; 179 : SI I5-SI9.
74. Barrette RW, Metwally SA. Rowland JM, Xu L, Zaki SR, Nichol ST, et al. Discovery of swine as a host for the Reston Ebolaviras. Science 2009; 325 : 204-6.
75. Pinzón JE. Wilson JM, Tucker CJ, Arthur R, Jahrling PB, Formenty P. Trigger events : Enviroclimatic coupling of Ebola hemorrhagic fever outbreaks. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2004; 71 : 664-74.
76. Peterson AT, Bauer JT, Mills JN. Ecologie and geographic distribution of filoviras disease. Emerg Infect Dis 2004; 10 : 40-47.
77. Peterson AT, Carroll DS, Mills JN. Johnson AM. Potential mammalian filoviras reservoirs Emerg Infect Dis 2004; 10 : 2073-81.
78. Peterson AT, Lash RR, Carroll DS, Johnson KM. Geographic potential for outbreaks of Marburg hemorrhagic fever. Am J Tmp Med Hyg 2006; 75; 9-15.
79. Leroy EM, Baize S, Volchkov VE, Fisher-Hoch SP, Georges-Courbot M-C, Lansoud-Soukate J, et al. Human asymptomatic Ebola infection and strong inflammatory response. Lancet 2000; 355 : 2210-15.
80. Becquart P. Wauquier N, Mahlakoiv T. Nkoghe D. Padilla C, Souris M, et al. High prevalence of both humoral and cellular immunity to Zaire Ebolaviras among rural populations in Gabon. PLoS One 2010; 5 : e9126.
81. Ivanoff B. Duquesnoy P. Languillat G. Saluzzo JF, Georges AJ. Gonzalez J-P, et al. Haemorrhagic fever in Gabon. I. Incidence of Lassa, Ebola and Marburg virases in Haut-Ogooué. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1982;76:719-20.
82. Bouree P. Bergmann JF. Ebola virus infection in man : A serological and epidemiological survey in the Cameroons. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1983; 32 : 1465-66.
83. Gonzalez JP. Josse R, Johnson ED. Merlin M. Georges AJ. Abandja J, el al. Antibody prevalence against haemorrhagic fever viruses in randomized representative Central African populations. Res Virol 1989; 140:319-31.
84. Johnson BK. Wambui C. Ocheng D. Gichogo A, Oogo S, Libondo D, el al. Seasonal variation in antibodies against Ebola virus in Kenyan fever patients. Lancet 1986; I : 1160.
85. Johnson ED, Gonzalez JP, Georges AJ. Filoviras activity among selected ethnic groups inhabiting the tropical forest of equatorial Africa. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1993: 87 : 536-38.
86. Gonzalez JP, Herbreleau V, Morvan J. Leroy EM. Ebola virus circulation in Africa: A balance between clinical expression and epidemiological silence. Buli Soc Pathol Emi 2005; 98 : 210-7.
87. Busico KM, Marshall KL, Ksiazek TG. Roels TH, Fleerackers Y, Feldmann H. el al. Prevalence of IgG antibodies lo Ebola virus in individuals during an Ebola outbreak. Democratic Republic of the Congo. 1995. J Infect Dis 1999; 179 : S102-S07.
88. Gonzalez JP. Nakoune E, Slenczka W, Vidal P. Morvan JM. Ebola and Marburg virus antibody prevalence in selected populations of the Central African Republic. Microbes Infect 2000; 2 : 39-44.
89. Huijbregts B, De Wachter P. Ndong Obiang S, Akou Ella M. Ebola and the decline of gorilla Gorilla gorilla and chimpanzee Pan troglodytes populations in Minkebe forest, north-eastern Gabon. Oryx 2003; 37:437-43.
90. Walsh PD, Abemelhy KA, Bermejo M, Beyers R, De Wachter P, Ella Akou M. el al. Catastrophic ape decline in western equatorial Africa. Nature 2003; 422:611-14.
91. Rouquet P. Froment J-M, Bermejo M, Kilbourne A, Karesh W, Reed P, et al. Wild animal mortality monitoring and human Ebola outbreaks. Gabon and Republic of Congo, 2001-2003. Emerg Infect Dis 2005; 11 : 283-90.
92. Bermejo M, Rodriguez-Teijeiro JD. Hiera G, Barroso A, Vila C, Walsh PD. Ebola outbreak killed 5000gorillas. Science 2006; 314 : 1564.
93. Caillaud D. Levrero F. Cristescu R, Gatti S, Dewas M, Douadi M, et al. Gorilla susceptibility to Ebola virus : The cost of sociality. Curr Biol 2006; 16 : R489-9I.
94. Leroy EM, Telfer P, Kumulungui B. Yaba P. Rouquet P, Roques P. et al. A serological survey of Ebola virus infection in central African nonhuman primates. J Infect Dis 2004; 190 : 1895-9.
95. Formenty P. Boesch C, Wyers M, Steiner C, Donati F, Dind F, et al. Ebola virus outbreak among wild chimpanzees living in a rain forest of Cote d'Ivoire. J Infecí Dis 1999; 179 Suppl I : S120-26.
96. Wittmann TJ. Biek R. Hassanin A. Rouquet P. Reed P. Yaba P, el al. Isolates of Zaire ebolaviras from wild apes reveal genetic lineage and recombinants. Pmc Nail Acad Sci USA 2007; 104 : 17123-7.
97. Arata AA. Johnson B. Approaches towards studies on potential reservoirs of viral haemorrhagic fever in southern Sudan (1977). In " Pattyn SR. ed. Ebola virus haemorrhagic lever". Elsevier/Netherland bio-medical ed, Amsterdam, 1978, pp 191-202.
98. Breman JG. Johnson KM, van der Groen G, Robbins CB, Szczeniowski MV, Ruli K, el al. A search for Ebola virus in animals in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Cameroon : Ecologie, virologie, and serologic surveys, 1979-1980. J Infect Dis 1999; 179 : S139-S47.
99. Reiter P. Tuteli M, Coleman R, Miller B, Maupin G. Liz J, el al. Field investigations of an outbreak of Ebola hemorrhagic fever, Kikwit, Democratic Republic of the Congo, 1995 : Arthropod studies. J Infect Dis 1999; 179 : S148-S54.
100. Leirs H, Mills JN, Krebs JW, Childs JE, Akaibe D. Woolen N, et al. Search for the Ebola virus reservoir in Kikwit, Democratic Republic of the Congo : Reflections on a vertebrate collection. J Infect Dis 1999; 179; S155-S63.
101. Formenty P. Jahrling P, Rossi C, Artsob H. Swanepoel R, LeGuenno B, el al. Search for the Ebola virus reservoir in Tai forest. Côte d'Ivoire; 1996-1997, preliminary results. In : XIth International Congress of Virology. Sydney, Australia, 1999.
102. Morvan JM, Deubel V, Gounon P, Nakoune E, Barriere P, Murri S, el al. Identification of Ebola virus sequences present as RNA or DNA in organs of terrestrial small mammals of the Central African Republic. Microbes Infect 1999; 1 : 1193-201.
103. Swanepoel R, Leman PA, Burt FJ. Experimental inoculation of plants and animals with Ebola virus. Emerg Infect Dis 1996; 2 : 321-25.
104. Turell MJ, Bressler DS, Rossi CA. Lack of virus replication in arthropods after intrathoracic inoculation of Ebola Reston virus. Am J Tmp Med Hyg 1996;55:89-90.
105. Leroy EM, Kumulungui B, Pourrut X, Rouquet P, Hassanin A, Yaba P, et al. Fruit bats as reservoirs of Ebola virus. Nature 2005; 438 : 575-76.
106. Pourrut X. Delicat A, Rollin PE, Ksiazek TG, Gonzalez JP, Leroy EM. Spatial and temporal patterns of Zaire ebolavirus antibody prevalence in the possible reservoir bat species. J Infect Dis 2007 ; l96Suppl2:SI76-83.
107. Towner JS. Pourrut X, Albarino CG, Nkogue CN, Bird BH, Grard G, et al. Marburg virus infection detected in a common African bat. PLaS ONE 2007; 2 : e764.
108. Swanepoel R, Smit SB, Rollin PE, Formenty P, Leman PA, Kemp A, el al. Studies of reservoir hosts for Marburg virus. Emerg Infect Dis 2007; 13 : 1847-51.
109. Leroy EM, Epelboin A. Mondonge V, Pourrut X. Gonzalez JP, Muyembe-Tamfum JJ. el al. Human Ebola outbreak resulting from direct exposure to fruit bats in Luebo, Democratic Republic of Congo, 2007. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2009; 6 : 723-28.
110. Martini GA. Clinical syndrome. In " MGAaS R. Marburg virus disease. Springer-Verlag ed. New York, 1971 : 1-9.
111. Smith DH, Francis F. Simpson DIH. African haemorrhagic fever in Southern Sudan, 1976: The clinical manifestations. In "Pattyn SR. Ebola virus haemorrhagic fever ". Elsevier/North-Holland biomedical press ed. New York, 1978, 21-26.
112. Peters CJ, Khan AS. Filovirus diseases. In " Klenk HD. Current topics in microbiology and immunology : Filovirus disease ". Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1999, 85-95.
113. Peters CJ, LeDuc JW. An introduction to Ebola : The virus and the disease. J Infect Dis 1999; 179 Suppl 1 : ix-xvi.
114. Bwaka MA, Bonnet M-J, Calain P, Colebunders R, De Roo A, Guimard Y, el al. Ebola hemorrhagic fever in Kikwit, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Clinical observations in 103 patients. J Infect Dis 1999; 179: S1-7.
115. Rowe AK. Bertolli J, Khan AS, Makunu R, Muyembe-Tamfum JJ, Bressler D, el al. Clinical, virologie, and immunologic follow-up of convalescent Ebola hemorrhagic fever patients and their household contacts, Kikwit, Democratic Republic of the Congo. J Infect Dis 1999; 179 : S28-S35.
116. Fisher-Hoch SP, Lloyd G. Piatt GS, Simpson DIH. Hematological and biochemical monitoring of Ebola infection in rhesus monkeys : Implications for patient management. Lancet 1983; 2 : 1055-58.
117. Fisher-Hoch SP, Piatt GS, Neild GH, Southree T, Baskerville A, Raymond RT, el al. Pathophysiology of shock and hemorrhage in a fulminating viral infection (Ebola). J Infect Dis 1985; 152: 887-94.
118. Geisbert TW, Young HA, Jahrling PB, Davis KJ, Kagan E, Hensley L. Mechanisms underlying coagulation abnormalities in Ebola hemorrhagic fever : Overexpression of tissue factor in primate monocytes/macrophages is a key event. J Infect Dis 2003; 188 : 1618-29.
119. Geisbert TW, Young HA, Jahrling PB, Davis KJ, Larsen T. Kagan E, el al. Pathogenesis of Ebola hemorrhagic fever in primate models : Evidence that hemorrhage is not a direct effect of virus-induced cytolysis of endothelial cells. Am J Pathol 2003; 163 : 2371-82.
120. Mahanty S, Hutchinson K, Agarwal S. McRae M, Rollin PE, Pulendran B. Cutting edge : Impairment of dendritic cells and adaptive immunity by Ebola and Lassa viruses. J Immunol 2003; 170 : 2797-801.
121. Ströher U, West E, Bugany H, Klenk H-D, Schnittler H-J, Feldmann H. Infection and activation of monocytes by Marburg and Ebola viruses. J Virol 2001; 75 : 11025-33.
122. Geisbert TW, Hensley L, Larsen T, Young HA, Reed DS, Geisbert JB, el al. Pathogenesis of Ebola hemorrhagic fever in Cynomolgus macaques : Evidence that dendritic cells are early and sustained targets of infection. Am J Pathol 2003; 163 : 2347-70.
123. Ryabchikova EI, Kolesnikova LV, Luchko SV. An analysis of features of pathogenesis in two animal models of Ebola virus infection. J Infect Dis 1999; 179:SI99-S202.
124. Baskerville A, Fisher-Hoch SP, Neild GH, Dowsett AB. Ultrastructural pathology of experimental Ebola haemorrhagic fever virus infection. J Pathol 1985; 147 : 199-209.
125. Gupta M, Mahanty S, Ahmed R, Rollin PE. Monocyle-derived human macrophages and peripheral blood mononuclear cells infected with Ebola virus secrete MIP- lot and TNF-a and inhibit poly-IC-induced IFN-a in vitro. Virology 2001; 284 : 20-5.
126. Baize S, Leroy EM, Georges AJ, Georges-Courbot M-C, Capron M, Bedjabaga 1, et al. Inflammatory responses in Ebola virus-infected patients. Clin Exp Immunol 2001; 128: 163-68.
127. Wauquier N, Becquart P. Padilla C. Baize S, Leroy EM. Human fatal Zaire Ebola virus infection is associated with an aberrant innate immunity and massive lymphocyte apoptosis. PLoS Neg Tmp Dis 2010;4:e837.
128. Villinger F, Rollin PE, Brar SS, Chikkala NF, Winter J, Sundstrom JB, el al. Markedly elevated levels of interferon (IFN)-γ. IFN-&alpha, Interleukin (IL)-2, IL-10, and Tumor Necrosis Factor-a associated with fatal Ebola virus infection. J Infect Dis 1999; 179 : SI88-91.
129. Feldmann H, Bugany H, Mahner F, Klenk HD, Drenckhahn D, Schnittler HJ. Filovirus-induced endothelial leakage triggered by infected monocytes/ macrophages. J Clin Invest 1996; 70: 2208-14.
130. Schnittler HJ. Feldmann H. Molecular pathogenesis of filovirus infections : Role of macrophages and endothelial cells. Curr Top Micmhiol Immunol 1999; 235 : 175-204.
131. Hensley L, Young HA, Jahrling PB, Geisbert TW. Proinflammatory response during Ebola virus infection of primate models : Possible involvement of the tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily. Immunol Utters 2002; 80 : 169-79.
132. Geisbert TW, Hensley L, Jahrling PB, Larsen T, Geisbert JB, Paragas J, el al. Treatment of Ebola virus infection with a recombinant inhibitor of factor VH/tissue factor : A study in rhesus monkeys. Lancet 2003; 362 : 1953-58.
133. Ruf W. Emerging roles of tissue factor in viral hemorrhagic fever. Trends Immunol 2004; 25 : 461-4.
134. Basler CF. Wang X, Muhlberger E, Volchkov V, Paragas J, Klenk HD, et al. The Ebola virus VP35 protein functions as a type 1IFN antagonist. Proc Nail Acad Sci USA 2000; 97 : 12289-94.
135. Haasnoot J, de Vries W, Geutjes EJ, Prins M. de Haan P. Berkhout B. The Ebola virus VP35 protein is a suppressor of RNA silencing. PLoS Palhog 2007; 3 :e86.
136. Feng Z, Cerveny M, Yan Z, He B. The VP35 protein of Ebola virus inhibits the antiviral effect mediated by double-stranded RNA-dependent protein kinase PKR. J Virol 2007; 81 : 182-92.
137. Fabozzi G, Nabel CS, Dolan MA, Sullivan NJ. Ebolavirus proteins suppress the effects of small interfering RNA by direct interaction with the Mammalian RNA interference pathway. J Virol 2011;85:2512-23.
138. Reid SP, Leung LW, Hartman AL, Martinez O, Shaw ML, Carbonnelle C, et al. Ebola virus VP24 binds karyopherin alphal and blocks STATI nuclear accumulation. J Virol 2006; 80: 5156-67.
139. Reid SP, Valmas C, Martinez O, Sanchez A, Basler CF. Ebola virus VP24 proteins inhibit the interaction of NPI-1 subfamily karyopherin alpha proteins with activated STATI. J Virol 2007; 81 : 13469-77.
140. Hartman AL, Ling L, Nichol ST, Hibberd ML. Whole-genome expression profiling reveals that inhibition of host innate immune response path-ways by Ebola virus can be reversed by a single amino acid change in the VP35 protein. J Virol 2008; 82 : 5348-58.
141. Prins KC, Delpeut S, Leung DW, Reynard O, Volchkova VA, Reid SP, el al. Mutations abrogating VP35 interaction with double-stranded RNA render Ebola virus avirulent in guinea pigs. J Virol 2010;84:3004-15.
142. Baize S. Leroy EM, Georges-Courbot M-C, Capron M, Lansoud-Soukatc J, Debré P, et al. Defective humoral responses and extensive intravascular apoptosis are associated with fatal outcome in Ebola virus-infected patients. Nature Med 1999;5 : 423-26.
143. Ksiazek TG, E. RP, Williams AJ, Bressler DS. Martin ML, Swanepoel R, et al. Clinical virology of Ebola hemorrhagic fever (EHF) : Virus, virus antigen, and lgG and IgM antibody findings among EHF patients in Kikwit, Democratic Republic of the Congo, 1995. J Infect Dis 1999; 179 : S177-87.
144. Baize S, Leroy EM, Mavoungou E, Fisher-Hoch SP. Apoptosis in fatal Ebola infection. Does the virus toll the bell for the immune system ? Apoptosis 2000; 5 : 5-7.
145. Geisbert TW, Hensley LE, Gibb TR, Steele KE, Jaax NK, Jahrling PB. Apoptosis induced in vitro and in vivo during infection by Ebola and Marburg viruses. Lab Invest 2000; 80 : 171-86.
146. Reed DS, Hensley LE, Geisbert JB. Jahrling PB, Geisbert TW. Depletion of peripheral blood T lymphocytes and NK cells during the course of Ebola hemorrhagic fever in Cynomolgus macaques. Viral Immunol 2004; 17 : 390-400.
147. Leroy EM, Becquart P, Wauquier N, Baize S. Evidence for Ebola virus superantigen activity. J Virol 2011; 85: 4041-2.
148. Bosio CM, Aman MJ, Grogan C, Hogan R, Ruthel G, Negley D, et al. Ebola and Marburg viruses replicate in monocyte-derived dendritic cells without inducing the production of cytokines and full maturation. J Infect Dis 2003; 188 : 1630-8.
149. Jin H, Yan Z. Prabhakar BS, Feng Z, Ma Y, Verpooten D, et al. The VP35 protein of Ebola virus impairs dendritic cell maturation induced by virus and lipopolysaccharide. J Gen Virol 2010; 91 : 352-61.
150. Geisbert TW, Pushko P, Anderson K, Smith J, Davis KJ, Jahrling PB. Evaluation in nonhuman primates of vaccines against Ebola virus. Emerg Infect Dis 2002; 8 : 503-07.
151. Lupton HW, Lambert RD, Bumgardner DL, Moe JB, Eddy GA. Inactivated vaccine for Ebola virus efficacious in guinea pig model. Lancet 1980; 2 : 1294-95.
152. Xu L, Sanchez A, Yang Z-Y, Zaki SR. Nabel EG, Nichol ST, et al. Immunization for Ebola virus infection. Nature Med 1998; 4 : 37-42.
153. Pushko P, Bray M, Ludwig GV, Parker M, Schmaljohn A, Sanchez A, et al. Recombinant RNA replicons derived from attenuated Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus protect guinea pigs and mice from Ebola hemorrhagic fever vims. Vaccine 2000; 19 : 142-53.
154. Rao M, Bray M, Alving CR. Jahrling P, Matyas GR. Induction of immune responses in mice and monkeys to Ebola virus after immunization with liposome-encapsulated irradiated Ebola virus : Protection in mice requires CD4(+) T cells. J Virol 2002;76:9176-85.
155. Sullivan NJ, Geisbert TW, Geisbert JB, Xu L, Yang Z-Y, Roederer M, et al. Accelerated vaccination for Ebola virus haemorrhagic fever in non-human primates. Nature 2003; 424 : 681-84.
156. Jones SM, Feldmann H, Stroher U, Geisbert JB, Fernando L, Grolla A, et al. Live attenuated recombinant vaccine protects nonhuman primates against Ebola and Marburg viruses. Nat Med 2005; 11 : 786-90.
157. Sullivan NJ, Geisbert TW, Geisbert JB, Shedlock DJ, Xu L. Lamoreaux L. et al. Immune protection of nonhuman primates against Ebola virus with single low-dose adenovirus vectors encoding modified GPs. PLoS Med 2006 ; 3 : e 177.
158. Feldmann H, Jones SM, Daddario-DiCaprio KM, Geisbert JB. Stroher U, Grolla A. et al. Effective post-exposure treatment of Ebola infection. PLoS Pathog 2001; 3 :e2.
159. Bukreyev A, Rollin PE, Tate MK, Yang L, Zaki SR. Shieh WJ, et al. Successful topical respiratory tract immunization of primates against Ebola virus. J Virol 2007; 81 : 6379-88.
160. Warfield KL, Swenson DL, Olinger GG, Kalina WV, Aman MJ, Bavari S. Ebola virus-like particle-based vaccine protects nonhuman primates against lethal Ebola virus challenge. J Infect Dis 2007; 196Suppl2:S430-7.
161. Geisbert TW, Daddario-Dicaprio KM, Lewis MG, Geisbert JB, Grolla A, Leung A, et al. Vesicular stomatitis virus-based Ebola vaccine is well-tolerated and protects immunocompromised nonhuman primates. PLoS Pathog 2008 ; 4 : e 1000225.
162. Geisbert TW, Daddario-DiCaprio KM, Williams KJ, Geisbert JB, Leung A. Feldmann F, el al. Recombinant vesicular stomatitis virus vector mediates postexposure protection against Sudan Ebola hemorrhagic fever in nonhuman primates. J Virol 2008;82:5664-8.
163. Swenson DL, Wang D, Luo M, Warfield KL, Woraralanadharm J, Holman DH, et al. Vaccine to confer to nonhuman primates complete protection against multistrain Ebola and Marburg virus infections. Clin Vaccine Immunol 2008; 15 : 460-7.
164. Geisbert TW, Geisbert JB, Leung A, Daddario-DiCaprio KM, Hensley LE, Grolla A, et al. Single-injection vaccine protects nonhuman primates against infection with Marburg virus and three species of Ebola virus. J Virol 2009 ; 83 : 72%-304.
165. Pratt WD, Wang D, Nichols DK, Luo M, Woraratanadharm J, Dye JM, el al. Protection of nonhuman primates against two species of Ebola virus infection with a single complex adenovirus vector. Clin Vaccine Immunol 2010; 17 : 572-81.
166. Hensley LE, Mulangu S, Asiedu C, Johnson J, Honko AN, Stanley D, el al. Demonstration of cross-protective vaccine immunity against an emerging pathogenic Ebolavirus Species. PLoS ftr//io)?2010;6:el000904.
167. Mupapa K, Massamba M. Kibadi K. Kuvula K, Bwaka A, Kipasa M, et al. Treauiient of Ebola hemorrhagic fever wilh blood uansfusions from convalescent patients. J Infect Dis 1999; 179 : S18-23.
168. Jahrling PB, Geisbert JB, Swearengen Jr. Larsen T, Geisbert TW. Ebola hemorrhagic fever : Evaluation of passive immunotherapy in non-human primates. J Infect Dis 2007; 196 Suppl 2 : S400-3.
169. Jahrling PB, Geisbert TW, Geisbert JB, Swearengen Jr. Bray M, Jaax NK, et al. Evaluation of immune globulin and recombinant interferon-a2b for treatment of experimental Ebola virus infections. J Infect Dis 1999; 179 : S224-S34.
170. Warfield KL, Swenson DL, Olinger GG. Nichols DK, Pratt WD. Blouch R, et al. Gene-specific countermeasures against Ebola virus based on antisense phosphorodiamidale morpholino oligomers. PLoS Pathog 2006 ; 2 : e 1.
171. Hensley LE, Stevens EL, Yan SB, Geisbert JB. Macias WL, Larsen T, et al. Recombinant human activated protein C for the postexposure treatment of Ebola hemorrhagic fever. J Infect Dis 2007 ; 1% Suppl 2 : S390-9.
172. Geisbert TW, Lee AC, Robbins M, Geisbert JB, Honko AN, Sood V, et al. Postexposure protection of non-human primates against a lelhal Ebola virus challenge with RNA interference : A proof-of-concept study. Lancet 2010; 375 : 1896-905.
173. Warren TK, Warfield KL, Wells J, Enterlein S, Smith M, Ruthel G, et al. Antiviral activity of a small-molecule inhibitor of filovirus infection. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2010; 54 : 2152-9.
174. Warren TK, Warfield KL, Wells J. Swenson DL, Donner KS, Van Tongeren SA, et al. Advanced antisense therapies for postexposure protection against lethal filovirus infections. Nat Med 2010; 16:991-4.