Leadership: Its genealogy, configuration and trajectory

Journal of Educational Administration and History

Volumn 42, Issue 4, 2010, Pages 405-435

  Gronn, Peter ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Capability; Co ordination; Configuration; Holism; Leadership

Indexed keywords

EID: 79957971981     PISSN: 00220620     EISSN: 14787431     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00220620.2010.492959     Document Type: Review

References (204)

1. Examples, mostly male, abound and the more notable include Tony Blair, Nicholas Sarkozy, Barack Hussein Obama and, especially, Silvio Berlusconi. On the latter
2. A. Stille, 'The Berlusconi Show', New York Review of Books, May 25, 2006
3. A. Edemariam, 'Being Mrs Berlusconi', Guardian2, May 1, 2009
4. J. Hooper, 'All Hail Berlusconi, the Emperor - but Where Will His Power End?, Guardian, May 2, 2009.
5. J.M. Burns, Leadership (New York: Harper & Row, 1978).
6. G.R. Goethals, G.J. Sorenson, and J.M. Burns, eds., Encyclopedia of Leadership, 4 vols. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2004).
7. B.M. Bass, Leadership and Performance Beyond Expectations (New York: Free Press, 1985).
8. B.M. Bass, and R. Bass, The Bass Handbook of Leadership: Theory, Research and Managerial Applications, 4th ed. (New York: Free Press, 2008).
9. P. Ribbins, 'History and the Study of Administration and Leadership in Education: Introduction to a Special Issue', Journal of Educational Administration and History 38, no. 2 (2006): 113-24
10. E. Samier, 'Educational Administration as a Historical Discipline: An apologia pro vita historia', Journal of Educational Administration and History 38, no. 2 (2006): 125-39.
11. As shown so ably, for example, by the German sociologist Georg Simmel.
12. K.H. Wolff, ed. and trans., The Sociology of Georg Simmel (New York: Free Press, 1950), 181-303.
13. Thanks are extended to Liz Careless and her colleagues in the Faculty of Education library in Cambridge for locating the pictures and descriptions of swarm behaviour which were utilised in the lecture presentation.
14. N. Blundell, 'Hell on Earth: The Rampaging Super Swarms of Birds and Insects Invading Suburbia', Daily Mail, January 5, 2009, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-1104292/Hell-earth-The-rampaging-super-swarms-birds-insectsinvading-suburbia.html (accessed February 25, 2009). The photograph caption reads: 'Buzz off: Professor Norman Gary engulfed by bees as he carries out research into the species which can be fatal if they form a swarm'.
15. Beautifully described by Jesper Svenbro in the poem 'The Starlings', http://www.poets.org/viewmedia.php/prmMID/16591 (accessed February 25, 2009).
16. D. Butler, 'The Mathematics of Murmurating Starlings', Daily Telegraph, February 24, 2009, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/wildlife/4736472/The-mathematics-of-murmurating-starlings.html (accessed February 25, 2009).
17. J. Surowiecki, The Wisdom of Crowds: Why the Many Are Smarter than the Few (London: Abacus, 2004), 27.
18. I.D. Couzin, J. Krause, N.R. Franks, and S.A. Levin, 'Effective Leadership and Decision-making in Animal Groups on the Move', Nature 433 (2005): 513.
19. I. Couzin, 'Collective Minds', Nature 445 (2007): 715.
20. Couzin et al., 'Effective Leadership and Decision-making', 515.
21. I. Couzin, 'Collective Cognition in Animal Groups', Trends in Cognitive Science 13, no. 1 (2008): 39.
22. Couzin, 'Collective Minds', 715.
23. Couzin, 'Collective Cognition', 36, although when assessing prospective sites for new nests, individual ant scouts recruit other individual ants which follow them back along pheromone trails to make independent assessments, while bee scouts dance to inform others about possible sites. Such information is then integrated by the scouts, 'and the swarm moves directly to the best site' (Couzin, 'Collective Cognition', 41).
24. D.S. Wilson, J.J. Timmel, and R.R. Miller, 'Cognitive Co-operation: When the Going Gets Tough, Think as a Group', Human Nature 15, no. 3 (2004): 2, is evidence of a group mind at work.
25. C. Boehm, Hierarchy in the Forest: The Evolution of Egalitarian Behavior (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001), 3, 16-30.
26. Ibid., 154.
27. J. Haas, 'Cultural Evolution and Political Centralization', in From Leaders to Rulers, ed. J. Haas (New York: Kluwer, 2001), 6-10.
28. G.D. Snooks, The Dynamic Society: Exploring the Causes of Global Change (London: Routledge, 1996), 46-50, 222-7
29. J.R. McNeill and W.H. McNeill, The Human Web: A Bird's-eye View of World History (New York: W.W. Norton, 2003), 12. I am aware that these are European-derived categories, that the timelines may be somewhat arbitrary, and that the origins and bases of periodisation schemes more generally continue to be hotly contested. For an alternative categorical arrangement based on cross-cultural interaction data
30. J.H. Bentley, 'Crosscultural Interaction and Periodization', American Historical Review 101, no. 3 (1996): 749-70 And for commentary
31. P. Manning, 'The Problem of Interactions in World History', American Historical Review 101, no. 3 (1996): 771-82.
32. B.R. Billmann, 'Understanding the Timing and Tempo of the Evolution of Political Centralization on the Central Andean Coastline and Beyond', in Haas, From Leaders to Rulers, 177-8.
33. Boehm, Hierarchy in the Forest, 137-48, for a slightly more nuanced societal spectrum: nomadic hunter gatherers > acephalous tribes > big-man societies > sedentary foragers > chiefdoms > primitive kingdoms > ancient civilisations > modern states. There is not universal scholarly agreement about societal categories, as there was geographical variation in sequence across global regions, in the transition from one formation to the next, along with the rapidity with which this occurred, as well as variation within categories, and there were continuities and discontinuities in social practices resulting from transitions. Indeed, this blending of old and new has been described as a hybrid mix of types.
34. Y. H. Ferguson, 'Chiefdoms to City-states: The Greek Experience', in Chiefdoms: Power, Economy, and Ideology, ed. T. Earle (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 170
35. G.M. Feinman, 'Mesoamerican Political Complexity: The Corporatenetwork Dimension', in Haas, From Leaders to Rulers, 173
36. M. Mann, The Sources of Social Power, vol. 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 196.
37. By Sidney Hook, for example, in The Hero in History (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1992), 4. Heroism was also the topic of the Ramsey Murray Lecture delivered by Professor Ludmilla Jordanova of King's College, London at Selwyn College, Cambridge, May 2009.
38. Comprising small roving bands of somewhere between 20 and 70 people and a small number of family or kin units.
39. Mann, Sources of Social Power, 42-4
40. Boehm, Hierarchy in the Forest, 203-4.
41. J. Woodburn, 'Egalitarian Societies', Man 17, no. 3 (1982): 431.
42. Ibid., 432-4.
43. On this latter point, it has been suggested that while these societies may have been politically egalitarian, they may equally have been 'reproductively despotic', as females mated preferentially with skilled hunters or putative headmen.
44. P.J. Fashing, 'Egalitarianism and Group Selection in Human Evolution', Current Anthropology 42, no. 5 (2001): 771.
45. McNeill and McNeill, Human Web, 14.
46. Boehm, Hierarchy in the Forest, 69.
47. Ibid., 9.
48. Woodburn, 'Egalitarian Societies', 440.
49. Boehm, Hierarchy in the Forest, 69.
50. It comprises a survey of 48 ethnographies of small-scale egalitarian societies, along with field reports of specific instances of groups' decision-making during emergencies
51. C. Boehm, 'Emergency Decisions: Cultural-selection, Mechanics, and Group Selection', Current Anthropology 37, no. 5 (1996): 765-70
52. Is the culmination of efforts documented in a series of publications to develop a 'unified theory' to account for egalitarianism
53. C. Boehm, 'Egalitarian Behaviour and Reverse Dominance Hierarchy', Current Anthropology 34, no. 3 [1993]: 228
54. C. Boehm, 'Forager Hierarchies, Innate Dispositions, and the Behavioural Reconstruction of Prehistory', in Hierarchies in Action: Cui Bono?, ed. M.W. Diehl (Carbondale: Center for Archaeological Investigations, Southern Illinois University, 2000), 31-58
55. C. Boehm, 'Egalitarian Behaviour and the Evolution of Political Intelligence', in Machiavellian Intelligence II: Extensions and Evaluations, ed. A. Whiten and R.W. Byrne (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 341-64
56. C. Boehm, 'Impact of the Human Egalitarian Syndrome on Darwinian Selection Mechanics', American Naturalist 150, suppl. (1997): S100-21
57. Boehm, 'Emergency Decisions', 763-93
58. Boehm, 'Reverse Dominance Hierarchy', 227-54
59. C. Boehm, 'Can Social Hierarchy and Egalitarianism both Be Ascribed to the Same Causal Forces?', Politics and the Life Sciences 1 (1984): 12-14.
60. Boehm, 'Reverse Dominance Hierarchy', 233.
61. Boehm, 'Emergency Decisions', 775.
62. Boehm, 'Egalitarian Behaviour and the Evolution of Political Intelligence', argues that there are robust grounds for believing that this predisposition has become genetically hard-wired. This has occurred, he claims, as a result of between-group cultural selection, mainly because the consensus and group sharing of bands has been conducive to the expression of altruistic and cooperative behaviour, the persistence of which has been strongly re-inforced by succeeding bands' collective experiences of survival. In other words, what he calls reverse dominance hierarchy (or counter-dominance) has turned out to be a winning formula. In selection terms, continued group success by bands has had the effect of narrowing the variation of their collective behavioural repertoires, with the result that inter-generational homogenisation pressures may have re-inforced between-group effects. On counter-dominance
63. D. Erdal, and A. Whiten, 'On Human Egalitarianism: An Evolutionary Product of Machiavellian Status Escalation', Current Anthropology 35, no. 2 (1994): 177.
64. Calculations based on the estimates in Boehm, 'Forager Hierarchies', 43, and especially Boehm, Hierarchy in the Forest, 198, where he cites the geneticist E.O. Wilson as suggesting that 'substantial changes' can occur in species in the span of less than 100 generations and that the 2000 generations since Homo sapiens invaded Europe have been sufficient to 'mold their anatomy and behavior in major ways'.
65. In much of the literature assembled for review in this article, issues concerned with gender, power, equality, justice and difference in leadership, as reviewed extensively by Blackmore, for example, have rarely figured prominently, if at all
66. J. Blackmore, 'Social Justice and the Study and Practice of Leadership in Education: A Feminist History', Journal of Educational Administration and History 38, no. 2 (2006): 185-200.
67. The dynamics of transition to this social formation 'remain something of a mystery', according to Boehm, 'Forager Hierarchies', 36.
68. T.K. Earle, 'Chiefdoms in Archaeological and Ethnohistorical Perspective', Annual Review of Anthropology 16 (1987): 285.
69. T.K. Earle, 'Institutionalization of Chiefdoms: Why Landscapes Are Built', in Haas, From Leaders to Rulers, 110.
70. Simple tribal polities were numbered in the low thousands, while more complex polities ran to tens of thousands: T. Earle, 'The Evolution of Chiefdoms', in Earle, Chiefdoms, 3
71. Earle, 'Chiefdoms in Perspective', 288.
72. Boehm, Hierarchy in the Forest, 97.
73. Earle, 'Chiefdoms in Perspective', 289.
74. Ibid., 279.
75. K. Kristiansen, 'Chiefdoms, States, and Systems of Social Evolution', in Earle, Chiefdoms, 19.
76. I am economising drastically on the considerable variation that exists within tribal chiefdoms, on which
77. W. Creamer, 'The Origins of Centralization: Changing Features of Local and Regional Control during the Rio Grande Classic Period, AD 1325-154', in Haas, From Leaders to Rulers, 37-58.
78. A. Gilman, 'Assessing Political Development in Copper and Bronze Age Southeast Spain, on the Respective Cases of the Pueblos Peoples of New Mexico, Who Lacked Chiefs or Kings, and the Millaran-Argaric Settlements of Granada, Spain', in Haas, From Leaders to Rulers, 59-81.
79. W.G. Runciman, 'Origins of States: The Case of Ancient Greece', Comparative Studies in Society and History 24, no. 3 (1982): 351-77.
80. K. Kristiansen, 'Rulers and Warriors: Symbolic Transmission and Social Transformation in Bronze Age Europe', in Haas, From Leaders to Rulers, 93.
81. Ibid., 96.
82. Which mostly ranged in size between 2000 and 10,000 male citizens according to Ferguson, 'Chiefdoms to City-states', 178.
83. Local village officials who rose to the status of kings.
84. Ferguson, 'Chiefdoms to City-states', 176-7.
85. Kristiansen, 'Rulers and Warriors', 97.
86. F. Oakley, Kingship: The Politics of Enchantment (Oxford: Blackwell, 2006), 13.
87. R.L. Fox, The Classical World: An Epic History from Homer to Hadrian (London: Allen Lane, 2005), 70.
88. Runciman, 'Origins of States', 375-6.
89. Ferguson, 'Chiefdoms to City-states', 183
90. Kristiansen, 'Rulers and Warriors', 98.
91. Oakley, Kingship, 4.
92. Mann, Sources of Social Power, 74 (original emphasis).
93. P.A. McAnany, 'Cosmology and the Institutionalization of Hierarchy in the Maya Region', in Haas, From Leaders to Rulers, 141.
94. Oakley, Kingship, 7.
95. The skilfulness of the Roman Emperor Constantine is a good example for, in utilising in statuary of himself the image of the sun and its rays, he was able to cement a link to Sol Invictus (a Roman sun cult imported from Syria) and the day of the winter solstice (25 December, which was also the date that fourthcentury Christians took to be the birthday of Christ).
96. This initiative meant he could maintain his 'neutral position between opposing [pagan and Christian] faiths'
97. C. Freeman, The Closing of the Western Mind: The Rise of Faith and the Fall of Reason (London: Pimlico, 2003), 163.
98. K. Kristiansen, and T.B. Larsson, The Rise of Bronze Age Society: Travels, Transmissions and Transformations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 62-75
99. Oakley, Kingship, 39-42.
100. Feinman, 'Mesoamerican Political Complexity', 167.
101. Identified as one of three emerging areas of general leadership theory that have deviated sharply from the traditional tripod of leaders, followers and shared goals that has dominated thinking in the field, and which has been the ontological foundation on which most heroic reasoning about leaders rests
102. W.H. Drath, C.D. McCauley, C.J. Palus, E. Van Velsor, P.M.G. O'Connor, and J.B. McGuire, 'Direction, Alignment, Commitment: Toward a More Integrative Ontology of Leadership', Leadership Quarterly 19 (2008): 639-41.
103. In a number of publications, but particularly in P. Gronn, 'Distributed Properties: A New Architecture for Leadership', Educational Management & Administration 28, no. 3 (2000): 317-38
104. P. Gronn, 'Distributed Leadership', in Second International Handbook of Educational Leadership and Administration, ed. K. Leithwood and P. Hallinger (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 2002), 653-96
105. P. Gronn, 'Distributed Leadership as a Unit of Analysis', Leadership Quarterly 13, no. 4 (2002): 423-51
106. P. Gronn, The New Work of Educational Leaders: Changing Leadership Practice in an Era of School Reform (London: Sage/Paul Chapman, 2003), 27-50
107. P. Gronn, 'Distribution of Leadership', in Encyclopedia of Leadership, vol. 1, G.R. Goethals, G.J. Sorenson, and J. MacGregor Burns, eds. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2004), 351-5.
108. J.A. Conger and R.N. Kanungo, Charismatic Leadership in Organizations (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1998), 64-70
109. B.M. Bass, Transformational Leadership: Industrial, Military, and Educational Impact (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1998), 166-9.
110. V. Hall, 'Management Teams in Education: An Unequal Music', School Leadership & Management 21, no. 3 (2001): 327-41
111. V. Hall, 'From Team Work to Teamwork in Education', in Second International Handbook of Educational Leadership and Administration, part 2, ed. K. Leithwood and P. Hallinger (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 2001), 697-733
112. V. Hall and M. Wallace, 'Let the Team Take the Strain: Lessons from Research into Senior Management Teams in Secondary Schools', School Organisation 16, no. 3 (1996): 297-308
113. M. Wallace and V. Hall, Inside the SMT: Teamwork in Secondary School Management (London: Paul Chapman, 1994)
114. M. Wallace and L. Huckman, 'Senior Management Teams in Large Primary Schools: A Headteacher's Solution to the Complexities of Post-reform Management?', School Organisation 16, no. 3 (1996): 309-23
115. M. Wallace and L. Huckman, Senior Management Teams in Primary Schools: The Quest for Synergy (London: Routledge, 1999).
116. W.N. Grubb and J.J. Flessa, 'A Job too Big for One: Multiple Principals and Other Non-traditional Approaches to School Leadership', Educational Administration Quarterly 42, no. 4 (2006): 518-50.
117. P. Gronn, 'The Future of Distributed Leadership', Journal of Educational Administration 46, no. 2 (2008): 145-8.
118. P. Gronn, 'Leadership Configurations', Leadership 5, no. 3 (2009): 381-94.
119. J.L. Alvarez and S. Svejenova, Sharing Executive Power: Roles and Relationships at the Top (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005)
120. H. Becker and R.H. Useem, 'Sociological Analysis of the Dyad', American Sociological Review 7, no. 1 (1942): 13-26
121. G. Simmel, 'The Number of Members as Determining the Sociological Form of the Group, I & II', American Journal of Sociology 8, nos. 1-2 (1902): 1-46, 158-96.
122. P. Gronn, 'Substituting for Leadership: The Neglected Role of the Leadership Couple', Leadership Quarterly 10, no. 1 (1999): 41-62.
123. M. Court, 'Women Challenging Managerialism: Devolution Dilemmas in the Establishment of Co-principals in Primary Schools in Aotearoa/New Zealand', School Leadership & Management 18, no. 1 (1998): 35-57
124. M. Court, 'Towards Democratic Leadership: Co-principal Initiatives', International Journal of Leadership in Education 6, no. 2 (2003): 161-83
125. P. Gronn and A. Hamilton, '"A Bit More Life in the Leadership": Co-principalship as Distributed Leadership Practice', Leadership and Policy in Schools 3, no. 1 (2004): 3-35
126. E.W. Eckman, 'Coprincipals: Characteristics of Dual Leadership Teams', Leadership & Policy in Schools 5, no. 1 (2006): 89-107.
127. D.A. Heenan and W. Bennis, Co-Leaders: The Power of Great Partnerships (New York: Wiley & Sons, 1999).
128. J.L. Alvarez, S. Svejenova, and L. Vives, 'Leading in Pairs', Sloan Management Review 48, no. 4 (2007): 10-14.
129. As is also known to occur quite frequently, for example, between prime ministers and treasurers (and their state-level equivalents) in the Australian political system.
130. R.C. Hodgson, D.J. Levinson, and A. Zaleznik, The Executive Role Constellation: An Analysis of Personality and Role Relations in Management (Boston: Graduate School of Business Administration, Harvard University, 1965).
131. C. Barnard, The Functions of the Executive (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982), 114-6.
132. Ibid., 116.
133. P.H. Rubin, 'Hierarchy', Human Nature 11, no. 3 (2000): 260-4.
134. R.L. Carneiro, 'On the Relationship between Size of Population and Complexity of Social Organization', Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 23, no. 3 (1967): 234-43
135. G. Johnson, 'Organizational Structure and Scalar Stress', in Theory and Explanation in Archaeology: The Southampton Conference, ed. C. Renfrew, M.J. Rowlands, and B.A. Segraves (New York: Academic Press, 1982), 389-421
136. R.J. Hommon, 'Can a Small Fish Swallow a Big One? Or, Orwell among the Hawaiians', in Hierarchies in Action: Cui Bono?, ed. M.W. Diehl (Carbondale: Center for Archaeological Investigations, Southern Illinois University, 2000), 134-51.
137. As argued so poignantly by R. Hatcher, 'The Distribution of Leadership and Power in Schools', British Journal of Sociology of Education 26, no. 2 (2005): 264.
138. A. Bolívar and J.L. Moreno, 'Between Transaction and Transformation: The Role of School Principals as Education Leaders in Spain', Journal of Educational Change 7, no. 1 (2006): 19-31
139. Gronn, 'Distributed Leadership', 658-9.
140. The voice/veto distinction is based on A.O. Hirschman, Exit, Voice, and Loyalty: Responses to Decline in Firms, Organizations, and States (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1970).
141. To take just one example: in each of the six case studies of distributed leadership in J. Spillane and J.P. Diamond, eds., Distributed Leadership in Practice (New York: Teachers College Press, 2008), the focus of the discussion is on the principals of the six schools (i.e. individual leaders).
142. A more detailed analysis of other examples is to be found in P. Gronn, 'Hybrid Configurations of Leadership', in A. Bryman, D. Collinson, K. Grint, B. Jackson, and M. Uhl-Bien, eds., Sage Handbook of Leadership (London: Sage, in press), 1217-62.
143. C.A. Gibb, 'Leadership', in Handbook of Social Psychology, vol. 2, Special Fields and Applications, ed. G. Lindzey (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1954), 884.
144. J.P. Spillane, E.M. Camburn, and A.S. Pareja, 'Taking a Distributed Perspective to the School Principal's Workday', Leadership and Policy in Schools 6, no. 1 (2007): 103-25.
145. W.A. Firestone and M.C. Martinez, 'Districts, Teacher Leaders, and Distributed Leadership: Changing Instructional Practice', Leadership and Policy in Schools 6, no. 1 (2007): 3-35.
146. H.S. Timperley, 'Instructional Leadership Challenges: The Case of Using Student Achievement Information for Instructional Improvement', Leadership and Policy in Schools 4, no. 1 (2005): 3-22.
147. M. Hadfield, 'Co-leaders and Middle Leaders: The Dynamic between Leaders and Followers in Networks of Schools', School Leadership & Management 27, no. 3 (2007): 259-83.
148. For example, Drath et al., 'Direction, Alignment, Commitment' Mann, Sources of Social Power; Simmel, 'Number of Members'.
149. I. Kershaw, Fateful Choices: Ten Decisions that Changed the World, 1940-1941 (London: Allen Lane, 2007), 25, 49, 59, 60, 102-4, 138-9, 201, 206, 245, 250, 264.
150. G. Allison and P. Zelikow, Essence of Decision: Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis, 2nd ed. (New York: Addison Wesley Longman, 1999).
151. E. Hutchins, Cognition in the Wild (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1996), 347.
152. T.L. Whisler, 'The "Assistant-to" in Four Administrative Settings', Administrative Science Quarterly 5 (1960): 182.
153. P. Gronn, 'Hybrid leadership', in Distributed Leadership According to the Evidence, ed. K. Leithwood, B. Mascall, and T. Strauss (New York: Routledge, 2008), 17-40.
154. In its report for the Department for Education and Skills, PriceWaterhouseCoopers reviewed five common models and case examples of leadership in English schools: Independent Study into School Leadership: Main Report (London: Department for Education and Skills, 2007), 48-88.
155. A.D. Meyer, A.S. Tsui, and C.R. Hinings, 'Configurational Approaches to Organizational Analysis', Academy of Management Journal 36, no. 6 (1993): 1190.
156. R.K. Merton, 'The Role-set: Problems in Sociological Theory', British Journal of Sociology 8, no. 2 (1957): 110.
157. An aspect developed specifically in relation to managerial role-sets by N. Fondas and R. Stewart, 'Enactment in Managerial Jobs: A Role Analysis', Journal of Management Studies 31, no. 1 (1994): 83-103.
158. I am aware that my juxtaposition of 'configuration' and 'role-set' bears a close resemblance to the language of systems theory, in particular to the whole-part relationship between 'system' and 'sub-system', and the idea of complex adaptive systems, on which
159. J. Holland, Hidden Order: How Adaptation Builds Complexity (Reading, MA: Perseus Books, 1995).
160. A. Bryk and B. Schneider, Trust in Schools: A Core Resource for Improvement (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2004), 122-33.
161. K. Leithwood, 'Epilogue: Reflections on the Articles in this Issue', Leadership and Policy in Schools 8, no. 2 (2009): 230.
162. Consistent with the approach for assessing configurational impact proposed by P.C. Fiss, 'A Set-theoretic Approach to Organizational Configurations', Academy of Management Review 32, no. 4 (2007): 1180-98
163. While PriceWaterhouseCoopers, Independent Study, drew up a balance sheet of potential benefits and costs for each model discussed in its report to the Department for Education and Skills, it did not specifically investigate the impact of each model on student learning
164. In doing so, I am focusing directly on the working for change and delivering change quadrants in Gunter's recent typology of field activities in educational leadership.
165. H. Gunter, 'Knowledge Production in the Field of Educational Leadership: A Place for Intellectual Histories', Journal of Educational Administration and History 38, no. 2 (2006): 201-15.
166. J. Lewis, 'Introducing the ACEL Leadership Capability Framework', Leading & Managing 15, no. 1 (2009): 68-71.
167. B.J. Loasby, 'The Concept of Capabilities', in Economic Organization, Capabilities and Co-ordination: Essays in Honour of G.B. Richardson, ed. N.J. Foss and B.J. Loasby (London: Routledge, 1998), 173.
168. M.C. Nussbaum, Frontiers of Justice: Disability, Nationality, Species Membership (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2006), 70.
169. A. Sen, Development as Freedom (New York: Anchor Books, 2000), 75.
170. Loasby 'Concept of Capabilities', 165.
171. M. Polanyi, Personal Knowledge: Towards a Post-critical Philosophy (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1962), 88.
172. For an assessment of some techniques for eliciting expert unarticulated tacit knowledge
173. E. Goldring, J. Huff, J. Spillane, and C. Barnes, 'Measuring the Learning-centred Expertise of School Principals', Leadership and Policy in Schools 8, no. 2 (2009): 197-228.
174. Gronn, New Work of Educational Leaders, 6-26.
175. While leaving myself exposed to the criticism when making this claim that I have ignored conflicting demands on leaders that may arise out of contextual differences - thereby putting myself at odds with those (such as English) who privilege leadership contexts - the universalistic claim of capabilities is more concerned with identifying what actions have to be performed, than prescribing how they ought to be performed.
176. F. English, 'Understanding Leadership in Education: Life Writing and its Possibilities', Journal of Education Administration and History 38, no. 2 (2006): 141-54. On the structuring of leadership contexts
177. M. Bottery, 'Context in the Study and Practice of Leadership in Education: A Historical Perspective', Journal of Education Administration and History 38, no. 2 (2006): 169-83.
178. Nussbaum, Frontiers of Justice, 75.
179. R. Bates, 'Culture and Leadership in Educational Administration: A Historical Study of What Was and What Might Have Been', Journal of Education Administration and History 38, no. 2 (2006): 155-68.
180. Sir G. Vickers, The Art of Judgment: A Study of Policy-making (London: Sage, 1995), 54.
181. J.M. Burns, 'Afterword', in The Quest for a General Theory of Leadership, ed. G.R. Goethals and G.L.J. Sorenson (Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2006), 235.
182. Professor Viviane Robinson, personal communication, 1 June 2009. A useful attempt to explicate domains of knowledge in educational leadership can be found in P. Ribbins and H. Gunter, 'Mapping Leadership Studies in Education: Towards a Typology of Knowledge Domains', Educational Management and Administration 30, no. 4 (2002): 359-85.
183. An additional research study which is highly relevant to the potential knowledge base for capabilities is Goldring et al., 'Expertise of School Principals'.
184. M.K. Stein and B.S. Nelson, 'Leadership Content Knowledge', Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 25, no. 4 (2003): 423-48.
185. Ibid., 424.
186. V.M.J. Robinson, C.A. Lloyd, and K. Rowe, 'The Impact of Leadership on Student Learning Outcomes: An Analysis of the Differential Effects of Leadership Types', Educational Administration Quarterly 44, no. 5 (2008): 635-74.
187. Ibid., 657.
188. Bryk and Schneider, Trust in Schools.
189. Ibid., 14-15, 26-9.
190. Ibid., 110.
191. Ibid., 111.
192. Here I draw extensively on the helpful overview provided by D.J. Campbell, 'Task Complexity: A Review and Analysis', Academy of Management Review 13, no. 1 (1988): 40-52.
193. Ibid., 42.
194. R. Wageman, 'The Meaning of Interdependence', in Groups at Work: Theory and Research, ed. M.E. Turner (New York: Erlbaum, 2001), 201.
195. M.H. Boisot, Information Space: A Framework for Learning in Organizations, Institutions and Culture (London: Routledge, 1995).
196. E. Jaques, 'The Development of Intellectual Capability: A Discussion of Stratified Systems Theory', Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 22, no. 4 (1986): 362.
197. E. Jaques, Requisite Leadership: The CEO's Guide to Creative Structure and Leadership (Arlington, VA: Cason Hall, 1989).
198. H.A. Simon, Administrative Behavior: A Study of Decision-making Processes in Administrative Organization (New York: Free Press, 1976), xxix.
199. R.N. Osborn, J.G. Hunt, and L.R. Jauch, 'Towards a Contextual Theory of Leadership', Leadership Quarterly 13, no. 6 (2002): 797-837.
200. P. Gronn, 'Emotional Engagement with Leadership', in Emotional Dimensions of Educational Administration and Leadership, ed. E. Samier and M. Schmidt (London: Routledge, 2009), 198-211.
201. S.J. Zaccaro, 'Trait-based Perspectives of Leadership', American Psychologist 62, no. 1 (2007), 6-16.
202. Ibid., 8.
203. V.M.J. Robinson, 'From Instructional Leadership to Leadership Capabilities: Empirical Findings and Methodological Challenges', Leadership and Policy in Schools 9, no. 1 (2010): 1-26.
204. Bryk and Schneider, Trust in Schools, 33-4.