AHR forum: Cross-cultural interaction and periodization in world history

American Historical Review

Volumn 101, Issue 3, 1996, Pages 749-769

  Bentley, Jerry H ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0000250867     PISSN: 00028762     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/2169422     Document Type: Review

References (188)

1. Joan Kelly-Gadol, "Did Women Have a Renaissance?" orig. pub. in Renate Bridenthal and Claudia Koonz, eds., Becoming Visible: Women in European History (Boston, 1977), 137-64;
2. rpt. in Joan Kelly, Women, History and Theory: The Essays of Joan Kelly (Chicago, 1984), 19-50.
3. Dietrich Gerhard, Old Europe: A Study of Continuity, 1000-1800 (New York, 1981).
4. On the last point, see Gerhard, Old Europe;
5. C. Warren Hollister, "The Phases of European History and the Nonexistence of the Middle Ages," Pacific Historical Review, 61 (1992): 1-22.
6. Several scholars have already offered thoughtful reflections on periodization from a global point of view. Some explicitly argue or implicitly assume that human societies evolve in reasonably similar fashion, so that periodization depends on the identification of stages that all societies pass through. Apart from the large body of Marxist evolutionary scholarship, see, for example, Robert McC. Adams, The Evolution of Urban Society: Early Mesopotamia and Prehispanic Mexico (Chicago, 1966).
7. Others have proposed hemispheric and global cycles as foundations for periodization: see Andre Gunder Frank, "A Theoretical Introduction to 5,000 Years of World System History," Review, 13 (1990): 155-248;
8. the essays in Andre Gunder Frank and Barry K. Gills, eds., The World System: Five Hundred Years or Five Thousand? (London, 1993).
9. Yet others envision periodizations based to some extent on cross-cultural interactions: see Ross E. Dunn, "Periodization and Chronological Coverage in a World History Survey," in Josef W. Konvitz, ed., What Americans Should Know: Western Civilization or World History? Proceedings of a Conference at Michigan State University, April 21-23, 1985 (East Lansing, Mich., 1985), 129-40;
10. Peter N. Stearns, "Periodization in World History Teaching: Identifying the Big Changes," History Teacher, 20 (1987): 561-80;
11. William A. Green, "Periodization in European and World History," Journal of World History, 3 (1992): 13-53.
12. See also William A. Green, "Periodizing World History," History and Theory, 34 (1995): 99-111.
13. William H. McNeill, The Rise of the West: A History of the Human Community (Chicago, 1963), does not address the issue of periodization directly but nonetheless contributes to its understanding by offering an integrated history of the world from a global point of view.
14. See also McNeill's reflections on "The Rise of the West after Twenty-Five Years," Journal of World History, 1 (1990): 1-21. This essay draws inspiration from the contributions cited above, and it seeks to complement them by proposing a principle for identifying coherent periods of history from a global point of view.
15. A few examples of recent works that nicely illustrate this point about the modern world: Mechal Sobel, The World They Made Together: Black and White Values in Eighteenth-Century Virginia (Princeton, N.J., 1987);
16. John E. Wills, Jr., "Maritime Asia, 1500-1800: The Interactive Emergence of European Domination," AHR, 98 (February 1993): 83-105;
17. Edward W. Said, Culture and Imperialism (New York, 1993);
18. Ronald T. Takaki, A Different Mirror: A History of Multicultural America (Boston, 1993);
19. Paul Gilroy, The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness (Cambridge, Mass., 1993).
20. Of Peter Brown's many thoughtful and penetrating works, see especially The World of Late Antiquity, A.D. 150-750 (London, 1971);
21. The Making of Late Antiquity (Cambridge, Mass., 1978). In the form of mass migrations, of course, cross-cultural interactions were a prominent feature of late antiquity. In his own work, however, Brown has concentrated on the cultural and religious history of the Mediterranean basin, and to a lesser extent of Southwest Asia, without placing the experiences of those regions in a larger Eurasian or hemispheric context and without directly addressing the theme of cross-cultural interaction.
22. See, among others, Philip D. Curtin, Cross-Cultural Trade in World History (New York, 1984);
23. Daniel R. Headrick, The Tentacles of Progress: Technology Transfer in the Age of Imperialism, 1850-1940 (New York, 1988);
24. Immanuel Wallerstein, The Modern World-System, 3 vols. (New York, 1974- );
25. Eric R. Wolf, Europe and the People without History (Berkeley, Calif., 1982);
26. William H. McNeill, Plagues and Peoples (Garden City, N.Y., 1976);
27. two works by Alfred W. Crosby, The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492 (Westport, Conn., 1972);
28. Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900-1900 (New York, 1986).
29. There are works that take long-distance trade seriously even in pre-modern times: see especially Curtin, Cross-Cultural Trade in World History;
30. C. G. F. Simkin, The Traditional Trade of Asia (London, 1968).
31. For several works that in various ways express the view that early long-distance trade was an enterprise of limited significance - and that do so from radically different perspectives - see Wallerstein, Modern World-System, 1: 19-21, 39-42;
32. W. W. Rostow, How It All Began: Origins of the Modern Economy (New York, 1975), 14-15;
33. Rondo Cameron, A Concise Economic History of the World: From Paleolithic Times to the Present (New York, 1989), 32-33, 78, 121-22;
34. Patricia Crone, Pre-Industrial Societies (Oxford, 1989), 22-24, 33-34. In the interests of fairness and precision, I would like to point out that these authors do not absolutely deny the significance of early long-distance trade: Cameron, for example, holds that it helped to integrate the economy of the Mediterranean basin under the Roman empire. In all cases, however, these authors and others convey the clear impression that long-distance trade was not an activity of large economic significance until modern times.
35. See Jane Schneider, "Was There a Pre-capitalist World System?" Peasant Studies, 6 (1977): 20-29;
36. Robert McC. Adams, "Anthropological Perspectives on Ancient Trade," Current Anthropology, 15 (1974): 239-58.
37. For broader analyses along similar lines, see also Mary W. Helms, Ulysses' Sail: An Ethnographic Odyssey of Power, Knowledge, and Geographical Distance (Princeton, N.J., 1988);
38. Nicholas Thomas, Entangled Objects: Exchange, Material Culture, and Colonialism in the Pacific (Cambridge, Mass., 1991).
39. On the political significance of long-distance trade in early Southeast Asia, see Kenneth R. Hall, Maritime Trade and State Development in Early Southeast Asia (Honolulu, 1985).
40. On the taste for exotic commodities and the uses made of them in pre-modern China, see especially two volumes of Edward H. Schafer, The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A Study of T'ang Exotics (Berkeley, Calif., 1963);
41. The Vermilion Bird: T'ang Images of the South (Berkeley, 1967).
42. It is impossible to calculate the value of this trade, but literary and archaeological sources make it clear that by the sixth century C.E., trade in Buddhist paraphernalia had become quite large. See Wang Gungwu, The Nanhai Trade: A Study of the Early History of Chinese Trade in the South China Sea (Kuala Lumpur, 1958);
43. Liu Xinru, Ancient India and Ancient China: Trade and Religious Exchanges, A.D. 1-600 (Delhi, 1988).
44. On the economic integration of the Indian Ocean basin, see especially two recent volumes of K. N. Chaudhuri, Trade and Civilisation in the Indian Ocean: An Economic History from the Rise of Islam to 1750 (Cambridge, 1985);
45. Asia before Europe: Economy and Civilisation of the Indian Ocean from the Rise of Islam to 1750 (Cambridge, 1990).
46. See also George F. Hourani, Arab Seafaring in the Indian Ocean in Ancient and Early Medieval Times (Princeton, N.J., 1951);
47. the first volume, with four additional volumes projected, of André Wink, "Al-Hind": The Making of the Indo-Islamic World (Leiden, 1990);
48. an article in which Wink outlines his larger vision of the Indian Ocean basin, "'Al-Hind': India and Indonesia in the Islamic World-Economy, c. 700-1800 A.D.," Itinerario, 12 (1988): 33-72.
49. On the diffusion of technologies, see Arnold Pacey, Technology in World Civilization: A Thousand-Year History (Oxford, 1990);
50. Richard W. Bulliet, The Camel and the Wheel (Cambridge, Mass., 1975);
51. Lynn White, Jr., Medieval Technology and Social Change (Oxford, 1962).
52. On biological diffusions, see McNeill, Plagues and Peoples;
53. Crosby, Ecological Imperialism;
54. Andrew M. Watson, Agricultural Innovation in the Early Islamic World: The Diffusion of Crops and Farming Techniques, 700-1100 (Cambridge, 1983);
55. Lynda N. Shaffer, "Southernization," Journal of World History, 5 (1994): 1-21.
56. See Jerry H. Bentley, Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times (New York, 1993), which examines cases of conversion encouraged by the voluntary association of host peoples with the cultural and religious traditions of foreign merchants.
57. Irving Rouse, Migrations in Prehistory: Inferring Population Movement from Cultural Remains (New Haven, Conn., 1986).
58. See also David W. Anthony, "Migration in Archeology: The Baby and the Bathwater," American Anthropologist, 92 (1990): 895-914.
59. See Robert J. Wenke, Patterns in Prehistory: Humankind's First Three Million Years, 3d edn. (New York, 1990);
60. two works of Marija Gimbutas, The Goddesses and Gods of Old Europe, 6500-3500 B.C.: Myths and Cult Images, updated edn. (Berkeley, Calif., 1982);
61. The Civilization of the Goddess: The World of Old Europe, Joan Marler, ed. (San Francisco, 1991).
62. David W. Anthony and Dorcas R. Brown, "The Origins of Horseback Riding," Antiquity, 65 (1991): 22-38;
63. Lionel Casson, The Ancient Mariners: Seafarers and Sea Fighters of the Mediterranean in Ancient Times, 2d edn. (Princeton, N.J., 1991).
64. See Casson, Ancient Mariners;
65. Shereen Ratnagar, Encounters: The Westerly Trade of the Harappa Civilization (Delhi, 1981);
66. Philip L. Kohl, "The Balance of Trade in Southwestern Asia in the Third Millennium B.C.," Current Anthropology, 19 (1978): 463-75;
67. Kohl, "The Use and Abuse of World Systems Theory: The Case of the 'Pristine' West Asian State," in C. C. Lamberg-Karlovsky, ed., Archaeological Thought in America (Cambridge, 1989), 218-40;
68. P. R. S. Moorey, "On Tracking Cultural Transfers in Prehistory: The Case of Egypt and Lower Mesopotamia in the Fourth Millennium B.C.," in Michael Rowlands, Mogens Larsen, and Kristian Kristiansen, eds., Centre and Periphery in the Ancient World (Cambridge, 1987), 36-46.
69. The earliest corpses so far studied date from about 2000 B.C.E., and their material culture included horses, wheeled carts, and fabrics featuring weaves similar to those associated with Indo-European communities in Northern Europe. Detailed studies of the desiccated corpses are not yet available, but for a preliminary report, see Victor H. Mair, "Prehistoric Caucasoid Corpses of the Tarim Basin," Journal of Indo-European Studies, 23 (1995): 281-307.
70. See also the series of articles following Mair's introductory essay in the same issue of the journal and two short articles elsewhere: Victor H. Mair, "Mummies of the Tarim Basin," Archaeology, 48 (March-April 1995): 28-35;
71. Evan Hadingham, "The Mummies of Xinjiang," Discover, 15 (April 1994): 68-77.
72. On the Indo-European migrations in general, see J. P. Mallory, In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology, and Myth (London, 1989).
73. The nature and results of the Indo-European migrations are matters of ongoing debate. For two contrasting and controversial views, see Colin Renfrew, Archaeology and Language: The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins (New York, 1988);
74. Marija Gimbutas, "The Indo-Europeanization of Europe: The Intrusion of Steppe Pastoralists from South Russia and the Transformation of Old Europe," Word, 44 (1993): 205-22.
75. For two judicious navigations through the literature on Indo-Europeans, see Mallory, In Search of the Indo-Europeans;
76. David W. Anthony, "The Archaeology of Indo-European Origins," Journal of Indo-European Studies, 19 (1991): 193-222.
77. Bronze technology almost certainly diffused from Southwest Asia, where it appeared in the late fourth millennium B.C.E., to the Mediterranean basin and the Indus River valley. Since there are very few signs of bronze metallurgy in China before the second millennium B.C.E., many scholars have thought that bronze technology also diffused to China. See two articles by Cyril Stanley Smith, "Bronze Technology in the East," in Mikulas Teich and Robert Young, eds., Changing Perspectives in the History of Science: Essays in Honour of Joseph Needham (London, 1973), 21-32;
78. "The Early History of Casting, Molds, and the Science of Solidification," in Smith's collected essays, A Search for Structure: Selected Essays on Science, Art, and History (Cambridge, Mass., 1981), 127-73.
79. For an argument that bronze technology in China was the result of independent invention, see Ping-ti Ho, The Cradle of the East: An Inquiry into the Indigenous Origins of Techniques and Ideas of Neolithic and Early Historic China, 5000-1000 B.C. (Hong Kong, 1975), 177-221.
80. K. C. Chang, The Archaeology of Ancient China, 4th edn. (New Haven, Conn., 1986), discusses several Chinese bronze artifacts from the third millennium B.C.E. Since he does not directly address the question of diffusion and independent invention, however, Chang seems to have softened his position since the third edition of his work (New Haven, 1977), 274-79, which argued explicitly for the independent invention of Chinese bronze metallurgy.
81. The relevant volume of Joseph Needham, Science and Civilisation in China, 6 vols. (Cambridge, 1954- ), has not yet appeared, but it will undoubtedly shed light on the origins and spread of bronze throughout Eurasia.
82. For a preliminary report on the earliest known chariots, see David W. Anthony and Nikolai B. Vinogradov, "Birth of the Chariot," Archaeology, 48 (March-April 1995): 36-41.
83. Theodore A. Wertime and James D. Muhly, eds., The Coming of the Age of Iron (New Haven, Conn., 1980);
84. Jan Vansina, Paths in the Rainforests: Toward a History of Political Tradition in Equatorial Africa (Madison, Wis., 1990), 47-69, esp. 58-61.
85. Mogens Trolle Larsen, "Commercial Networks in the Ancient Near East," in Rowlands, Larsen, and Kristiansen, Centre and Periphery in the Ancient World, 47-56;
86. John Gledhill and Mogens T. Larsen, "The Polanyi Paradigm and a Dynamic Analysis of Archaic States," in Colin Renfrew, Michael J. Rowlands, and Barbara Abbot Segraves, eds., Theory and Explanation in Archaeology: The Southampton Conference (New York, 1982), 197-229;
87. Kohl, "Use and Abuse of World Systems Theory";
88. Philip L. Kohl, "The 'World-Economy' of West Asia in the Third Millennium B.C.," in M. Taddei, ed., South Asian Archaeology, 1977, 2 vols. (Naples, 1979), 1: 55-85.
89. yǎg, Old Persian Maguš, and English 'Magician,'" Early China, 15 (1990): 27-47.
90. Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones, Atlas of World Population History (Harmondsworth, 1978), 342-51.
91. On the Bantu migrations and their role in spreading agriculture, see Vansina, Paths in the Rainforests, 47-69;
92. S. Lwanga-Lunyiigo and J. Vansina, "The Bantu-Speaking Peoples and Their Expansion," in J. Ki-Zerbo, et al., eds., General History of Africa, 7 vols. (Berkeley, Calif., 1981- ), 3: 140-62.
93. Apart from the classic work of Owen Lattimore, Inner Asian Frontiers of China, 2d edn. (New York, 1951),
94. see also Anatoly M. Khazanov, Nomads and the Outside World, J. Crookendon, trans., 2d edn. (Madison, Wis., 1994).
95. See Bulliet, Camel and the Wheel, 28-110;
96. William H. McNeill, "The Eccentricity of Wheels, or Eurasian Transportation in Historical Perspective," AHR, 92 (December 1987): 1111-26.
97. See Jean W. Sedlar, India and the Greek World: A Study in the Transmission of Culture (Totowa, N.J., 1980);
98. Mortimer Wheeler, Flames over Persepolis, Turning-Point in History (New York, 1968).
99. See also Frank L. Holt, Alexander the Great and Bactria: The Formation of a Greek Frontier in Central Asia (Leiden, 1989).
100. On the general patterns of trade during classical times, see Curtin, Cross-Cultural Trade in World History, 60-108;
101. Simkin, Traditional Trade of Asia, 1-49;
102. Manfred G. Raschke, "New Studies in Roman Commerce with the East," in H. Temporini and W. Haase, eds., Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt (Berlin, 1978), 2: 9: 2, 604-1361;
103. Ying-shih Yü, Trade and Expansion in Han China: A Study in the Structure of Sino-Barbarian Economic Relations (Berkeley, Calif., 1967);
104. Vimala Begley and Richard Daniel De Puma, eds., Rome and India: The Ancient Sea Trade (Madison, Wis., 1991).
105. On the terrestrial and maritime routes of the silk roads, see Wang, Nanhai Trade;
106. Lionel Casson, ed., The "Periplus Maris Erythraei" (Princeton, N.J., 1989);
107. J. Innes Miller, The Spice Trade of the Roman Empire, 29 B.C. to A.D. 641 (Oxford, 1969).
108. See Bentley, Old World Encounters, 29-66;
109. Sedlar, India and the Greek World;
110. James Heitzman, The Origin and Spread of Buddhist Monastic Institutions in South Asia, 500 B.C.-300 A.D. (Philadelphia, 1980);
111. Heitzman, "Early Buddhism, Trade and Empire," in Kenneth A. R. Kennedy and Gregory L. Possehl, eds., Studies in the Archaeology and Palaeoanthropology of South Asia (New Delhi, 1984), 121-37;
112. E. Zürcher, The Buddhist Conquest of China, 2 vols. (Leiden, 1959-72);
113. Samuel N. C. Lieu, Manichaeism in the Later Roman Empire and Medieval China, 2d edn. (Tübingen, 1992).
114. See McNeill, Plagues and Peoples, 106-47.
115. For the populations of China and Europe, see McEvedy and Jones, Atlas of World Population History, 18-39, 166-75.
116. For an intriguing analysis showing how Chinese wealth strengthened nomadic peoples, see Thomas J. Barfield, The Perilous Frontier: Nomadic Empires and China (Cambridge, Mass., 1989).
117. See also Barry Cunliffe, Greeks, Romans and Barbarians: Spheres of Interaction (New York, 1988);
118. Patrick J. Geary, Before France and Germany: The Creation and Transformation of the Merovingian World (New York, 1988);
119. the classic work of Frederick J. Teggart, Rome and China: A Study of Correlations in Historical Events (Berkeley, Calif., 1939).
120. See the volumes of Edward H. Schafer cited earlier: The Golden Peaches of Samarkand and The Vermilion Bird.
121. On long-distance trade in this era, see Curtin, Cross-Cultural Trade in World History, 90-108;
122. Simkin, Traditional Trade of Asia, 49-124;
123. Wang, Nanhai Trade;
124. Hourani, Arab Seafaring in the Indian Ocean;
125. L. Rabinowitz, Jewish Merchant Adventurers: A Study of the Radanites (London, 1948);
126. the two volumes of Chaudhuri: Trade and Civilisation in the Indian Ocean and Asia before Europe.
127. See especially Richard Hodges and David Whitehouse, Mohammed, Charlemagne and the Origins of Europe: Archaeology and the Pirenne Thesis (Ithaca, N.Y., 1983).
128. On the Uighurs, see Colin Mackerras, The Uighur Empire according to the T'ang Dynastic Histories (Columbia, S.C., 1972);
129. Barfield, Perilous Frontier, 131-63;
130. V. Minorsky, "Tamim Ibn Bahr's Journey to the Uighurs," Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 12 (1948): 275-305.
131. On the silk trade during this era, see Liu Xinru, "Silks and Religions in Eurasia, c. A.D. 600-1200," Journal of World History, 6 (1995): 25-48.
132. See George Coedès, The Indianized States of Southeast Asia, S. B. Cowing, trans. (Honolulu, 1968), 81-188;
133. O. W. Wolters, Early Indonesian Commerce: A Study of the Origins of Srivijaya (Ithaca, N.Y., 1967);
134. Hourani, Arab Seafaring in the Indian Ocean;
135. Chaudhuri's two volumes: Trade and Civilisation in the Indian Ocean and Asia before Europe.
136. See John Middleton, The World of the Swahili: An African Mercantile Civilization (New Haven, Conn., 1992);
137. Derek Nurse and Thomas Spear, The Swahili: Reconstructing the History and Language of an African Society, 800-1500 (Philadelphia, 1985);
138. the rich archaeological study by H. Neville Chittick, Kilwa: An Islamic Trading City on the East African Coast, 2 vols. (Nairobi, 1974).
139. On the caravan trade, see E. W. Bovill, The Golden Trade of the Moors, 2d edn. (London, 1968).
140. On early West Africa in general, see Nehemia Levtzion, Ancient Ghana and Mali (London, 1973).
141. See Shaffer, "Southernization";
142. Watson, Agricultural Innovation in the Early Islamic World.
143. The processes promoting these religious and cultural developments varied considerably. For details, see Bentley, Old World Encounters, 67-110.
144. See also Christopher I. Beckwith, The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia (Princeton, N.J., 1987), 173-96;
145. Victor H. Mair, Painting and Performance: Chinese Picture Recitation and Its Indian Genesis (Honolulu, 1988);
146. Hugh R. Clark, "Muslims and Hindus in the Culture and Morphology of Quanzhou from the Tenth to the Thirteenth Century," Journal of World History, 6 (1995): 49-74.
147. Janet L. Abu-Lughod, Before European Hegemony: The World System, A.D. 1250-1350 (New York, 1989).
148. A recent analysis offers useful insights on this age of nomadic empires: S. A. M. Adshead, Central Asia in World History (London, 1993).
149. On long-distance trade during the age of nomadic empires, see Curtin, Cross-Cultural Trade in World History, 109-35;
150. Simkin, Traditional Trade of Asia, 127-41;
151. Chaudhuri's two volumes: Trade and Civilisation in the Indian Ocean and Asia before Europe.
152. On the expansion of Islam during this age of nomadic empires, see especially Nehemia Levtzion, ed., Conversion to Islam (New York, 1979);
153. Ross E. Dunn, The Adventures of Ibn Battuta, a Muslim Traveller of the 14th Century (Berkeley, Calif., 1989);
154. S. M. Ikram, Muslim Civilization in India, Ainslie T. Embree, ed. (New York, 1964);
155. Aziz Ahmad, Studies in Islamic Culture in the Indian Environment (Oxford, 1964);
156. Speros Vryonis, The Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor and the Process of Islamization from the Eleventh through the Fifteenth Century (Berkeley, 1971);
157. Claude Cahen, Pre-Ottoman Turkey, J. Jones-Williams, trans. (New York, 1968).
158. e) (Rome, 1977);
159. Igor de Rachewiltz, Papal Envoys to the Great Khans (Stanford, Calif., 1971);
160. Morris Rossabi, Voyager from Xanadu: Rabban Sauma, First Eastern Emissary to the West (New York, 1992).
161. William H. McNeill, The Pursuit of Power: Technology, Armed Force, and Society since A.D. 1000 (Chicago, 1982), 24-62, esp. 50-62;
162. "Rise of the West after Twenty-Five Years."
163. See also two works by E. L. Jones: The European Miracle: Environments, Economies and Geopolitics in the History of Europe and Asia, 2d edn. (Cambridge, 1987);
164. Growth Recurring: Economic Change in World History (Oxford, 1988).
165. For the populations of Europe and China, see McEvedy and Jones, Atlas of World Population History, 18-39, 166-75.
166. For studies of bubonic plague and its effects, see McNeill, Plagues and Peoples, 149-98;
167. Michael W. Dols, The Black Death in the Middle East (Princeton, N.J., 1977).
168. Abu-Lughod identifies plague as the principal agent that destroyed the complex system of interregional trade that had developed during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries: see Before European Hegemony, 170-75 183, 352-73.
169. Compare the analyses of Jones in European Miracle and Growth Recurring
170. with those of Wallerstein, Modern World-System;
171. J. M. Blaut, The Colonizer's Model of the World: Geographical Diffusionism and Eurocentric History (New York, 1993).
172. On the Europeans' technology, see Carlo Cipolla, Guns, Sails and Empires: Technological Innovation and the Early Phases of European Expansion, 1400-1700 (New York, 1965);
173. Geoffrey Parker, The Military Revolution: Military Innovation and the Rise of the West, 1500-1800 (Cambridge, 1988).
174. On the role of diseases in abetting European expansion, see McNeill, Plagues and Peoples, 199-234;
175. Crosby's two volumes: Columbian Exchange and Ecological Imperialism.
176. The best guides to large-scale processes of biological exchange are Crosby's two volumes: Columbian Exchange and Ecological Imperialism.
177. For only a few relevant works, see Wallerstein, Modern World-System;
178. Wolf, Europe and the People without History;
179. two volumes of Daniel R. Headrick: Tentacles of Progress and The Tools of Empire: Technology and European Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1981).
180. To cite only a few especially rich items from a voluminous literature, see Helms, Ulysses' Sail;
181. Stuart B. Schwartz, ed., Implicit Understandings: Observing, Reporting, and Reflecting on the Encounters between European and Other Peoples in the Early Modem Era (Cambridge, 1994);
182. Michael Adas, Prophets of Rebellion: Millenarian Protest Movements against the European Colonial Order (1979; New York, 1987);
183. John Thornton, Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400-1680 (New York, 1992);
184. James Axtell, The European and the Indian: Essays in the Ethnohistory of Colonial North America (New York, 1981);
185. Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Grat Lakes Region, 1650-1815 (Cambridge, 1991);
186. Greg Dening, Islands and Beaches: Discourse on a Silent Land - Marquesas, 1774-1880 (Honolulu, 1980);
187. David Hanlon, Upon a Stone Altar: A History of the Island of Pohnpei to 1890 (Honolulu, 1988);
188. David A. Chappell, "Frontiers and Ethnogenesis," Journal of World History, 4 (1993): 267-75.