Simulation of aerosol radiative effects over West Africa during DABEX and AMMA SOP-0

Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres

Volumn 116, Issue 8, 2011, Pages

  Malavelle, Florent ^a   Pont, Véronique ^a   Mallet, Marc ^a   Solmon, Fabien ^b   Johnson, Ben ^c   Leon, Jean Franois ^a   Liousse, Catherine ^a  

^a LABORATOIRE D AÉROLOGIE   (France)

^b ABDUS SALAM INTERNATIONAL CENTRE FOR THEORETICAL PHYSICS   (Italy)

^c MET OFFICE   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CLIMATE MODELS; DUST; OPTICAL PROPERTIES; SILICATE MINERALS; SOLAR RADIATION;

ABSORBING AEROSOL; AEROSOL LAYERS; AEROSOL OPTICAL PROPERTY; AEROSOL OPTICAL THICKNESS; AEROSOL SINGLE SCATTERING ALBEDO; BIOMASS-BURNING; CARBONACEOUS AEROSOL; CENTRAL AFRICA; CLOUD SCREENING; DARK SURFACES; DIRECT RADIATIVE FORCING; GULF OF GUINEA; LONG WAVES; MINERAL DUST; RADIATIVE EFFECTS; RADIATIVE HEATING; REGIONAL CLIMATE MODELS; SEASONAL VARIATION; SHORT WAVES; TOP OF THE ATMOSPHERES; UNDERLYING SURFACE; WEST AFRICA;

ATMOSPHERIC AEROSOLS;

AEROSOL PROPERTY; ALBEDO; BIOMASS BURNING; CLEAR SKY; CLIMATE MODELING; DUST; HEATING; RADIATION BUDGET; RADIATIVE FORCING; REGIONAL CLIMATE; SATELLITE IMAGERY; SEASONAL VARIATION;

ATLANTIC OCEAN; GULF OF GUINEA; NIAMEY [NIGER]; NIGER [WEST AFRICA]; WEST AFRICA;

EID: 79955068350     PISSN: 01480227     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1029/2010JD014829     Document Type: Article

References (108)

1. Abel, S. J., J. M. Haywood, E. J. Highwood, J. Li, and P. R. Buseck (2003), Evolution of biomass burning aerosol properties from an agricultural fire in southern Africa, Geophys. Res. Lett., 30(15), 1783, doi:10.1029/ 2003GL017342.
2. Alfaro, S. C., and L. Gomes (2001), Modeling mineral aerosol production by wind erosion: Emission intensities and aerosol size distributions in source areas, J. Geophys. Res., 106(D16), 18,075-18,084, doi:10.1029/2000JD900339.
3. Andreae, M. O., and A. Gelencser (2006), Black carbon or brown carbon? The nature of light-absorbing carbonaceous aerosols, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6(10), 3131-3148, doi:10.5194/acp-6-3131-2006. (Pubitemid 44154660)
4. Andreae, M. O., C. D. Jones, and P. M. Cox (2005), Strong present-day aerosol cooling implies a hot future, Nature, 435(7046), 1187-1190, doi:10.1038/nature03671. (Pubitemid 40943077)
5. Anyamba, A. (2003), Seasonal to interannual variability of vegetation and fires at SAFARI 2000 sites inferred from advanced very high resolution radiometer time series data, J. Geophys. Res., 108(D13), 8507, doi:10.1029/2002JD002464.
6. Assamoi, E., and C. Liousse (2010), A new inventory for two-wheel vehicle emissions in West Africa for 2002, Atmos. Environ., 44(32), 3985-3996, doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2010.06.048.
7. Bond, T. C., and R. W. Bergstrom (2006), Light absorption by carbonaceous particles: An investigative review, Aerosol Sci. Technol, 40(1), 27-67, doi:10.1080/02786820500421521.
8. Briegleb, B. P. (1992), Delta-Eddington approximation for solar radiation in the NCAR Community Climate Model, J. Geophys. Res., 97(D7), 7603-7612, doi:10.1029/92JD00291.
9. Cavazos, C., M. C. Todd, and K. Schepanski (2009), Numerical model simulation of the Saharan dust event of 6-11 march 2006 using the regional climate model version 3(RegCM3), J. Geophys. Res., 114, D12109, doi:10.1029/2008JD011078.
10. Chakrabarty, R. K., H. Moosmüller, L.-W. A. Chen, K. Lewis, W. P. Arnott, C. Mazzolen, M. Dubey, C. E. Wold, W. M. Hao, and S. M. Kreidenweis (2010), Brown carbon in tar balls from smoldering biomass combustion, Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss., 10(3), 6279-6300, doi:10.5194/acpd-10-6279-2010.
11. Charlson, R. J., S. E. Schwartz, J. M. Hales, R. D. Cess, J. A. Coakley, J. E. Hansen, and D. J. Hofmann (1992), Climate forcing by anthropogenic aerosols, Science, 255(5043), 423-430, doi:10.1126/science.255.5043.423.
12. Cooke, W. F., C. Liousse, H. Cachier, and J. Feichter (1999), Construction of a 1° × 1° fossil fuel emission data set for carbonaceous aerosol and implementation and radiative impact in the ECHAM4 model, J. Geophys. Res., 104(D18), doi:10.1029/1999JD900187.
13. Crumeyrolle, S., P. Tulet, L. Garcia-Carreras, C. Flamant, D. J. Parker, A. Matsuki, A. Schwarzenboeck, P. Formenti, and L. Gomes (2010), Transport of dust particles from the Bodélé region to the monsoon layer: AMMA case study of the 9-14 June 2006 period, Atmos., Chem. Phys. Discuss., 10(2), 5051-5090, doi:10.5194/acpd-10-5051-2010.
14. Deeter, M. N., et al. (2003), Operational carbon monoxide retrieval algorithm and selected results for the MOPITT instrument, J. Geophys. Res., 108(D14), 4399, doi:10.1029/2002JD003186.
15. Derimian, Y., J.-F. Léon, O. Dubovik, I. Chiapello, D. Tanré, A. Sinyuk, F. Auriol, T. Podvin, G. Brogniez, and B. Holben (2008a), Radiative properties of aerosol mixture observed during the dry season 2006 over M'Bour, Senegal (African Monsoon Multidisciplinary Analysis campaign), J. Geophys. Res., 113, D00C09, doi:10.1029/2008JD009904.
16. Derimian, Y., A. Karnieli, Y. J. Kaufman, M. O. Andreae, T. W. Andreae, O. Dubovik, W. Maenhaut, and I. Koren (2008b), The role of iron and black carbon in aerosol light absorption, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8(13), 3623-3637, doi:10.5194/acp-8-3623-2008.
17. Deuzé, J.-L., et al. (2001), Remote sensing of aerosols over land surfaces from POLDER-ADEOS-1 polarized measurements, J. Geophys. Res., 106(D5), 4913-4926, doi:10.1029/2000JD900364.
18. Dickinson, R. E., A. Henderson-Sellers, and P. J. Kennedy (1993), Biosphere-atmosphere transfer scheme (BATS) version 1e as coupled to the NCAR community climate model, Tech. Rep. NCAR/TN-387+ STR, NCAR, Boulder, Colo.
19. Dinar, E., A. A. Riziq, C. Spindler, C. Erlick, G. Kiss, and Y. Rudich (2008), The complex refractive index of atmospheric and model humic-like substances (HULIS) retrieved by a cavity ring down aerosol spectrometer (CRD-AS), Faraday Discuss., 137, 279-295, doi:10.1039/b703111d.
20. Diner, D. J., et al. (1998), Multi-angle Imaging SpectroRadiometer (MISR) instrument description and experiment overview, IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens., 36(4), 1072-1087, doi:10.1109/36.700992. (Pubitemid 128748519)
21. Dubovik, O., A. Smirnov, B. N. Holben, M. D. King, Y. J. Kaufman, T. F. Eck, and I. Slutsker (2000), Accuracy assessments of aerosol optical properties retrieved from aerosol robotic network (AERONET) Sun and sky radiance measurements, J. Geophys. Res., 105(D8), 9791-9806, doi:10.1029/2000JD900040.
22. Dubovik, O., B. Holben, T. F. Eck, A. Smirnov, Y. J. Kaufman, M. D. King, D. Tanré, and I. Slutsker (2002), Variability of absorption and optical properties of key aerosol types observed in worldwide locations, J. Atmos. Sci., 59(3), 590-608, doi:10.1175/1520-0469(2002)059<0590:VOAAOP>2.0.CO;2. (Pubitemid 34838293)
23. Dufresne, J., C. Gautier, P. Ricchiazzi, and Y. Fouquart (2002), Longwave scattering effects of mineral aerosols, J. Atmos. Sci., 59(12), 1959-1966, doi:10.1175/1520-0469(2002)059<1959:LSEOMA>2.0.CO;2. (Pubitemid 34788965)
24. Eck, T. F., B. N. Holben, J. S. Reid, O. Dubovik, A. Smirnov, N. T. O'Neill, I. Slutsker, and S. Kinne (1999), Wavelength dependence of the optical depth of biomass burning, urban, and desert dust aerosols, J. Geophys. Res., 104(D24), 31,333-31,349, doi:10.1029/1999JD900923.
25. Edwards, J. M., and A. Slingo (1996), Studies with a flexible new radiation code. I: Choosing a configuration for a large-scale model, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc, 122(531), 689-719, doi:10.1002/qj.49712253107.
26. Forster, P., et al. (2007), Changes in atmospheric constituents and in radiative forcing, in Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, edited by S. Solomon et al., pp. 129-234, Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, U. K.
27. Giorgi, F. (1989), Two-dimensional simulations of possible mesoscale effects of nuclear war fires 1. Model description, J. Geophys. Res., 94(D1), 1127-1144, doi:10.1029/JD094iD01p01127. (Pubitemid 19072386)
28. Giorgi, F., and W. L. Chameides (1986), Rainout lifetimes of highly soluble aerosols and gases as inferred from simulations with a general circulation model, J. Geophys. Res., 91(D13), 14,367-14,376, doi:10.1029/JD091iD13p14367.
29. Giorgi, F., and L. O. Mearns (1999), Introduction to special section: Regional climate modeling revisited, J. Geophys. Res., 104(D6), 6335-6352, doi:10.1029/98JD02072.
30. Giorgi, F., R. Francisco, and J. S. Pal (2003), Effects of a subgrid-scale topography and land use scheme on the simulation of surface climate and hydrology. Part I: Effects of temperature and water vapor disaggregation, J. Hydrometeorol, 4, 317-333, doi:10.1175/1525-7541(2003) 4<317:EOASTA>2.0.CO;2. (Pubitemid 36751427)
31. Grell, G. A. (1993), Prognostic evaluation of assumptions used by cumulus parameterizations, Mon. Weather Rev., 121, 764-787, doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1993) 121<0764:PEOAUB>2.0.CO;2. (Pubitemid 24392804)
32. Grini, A., P. Tulet, and L. Gomes (2006), Dusty weather forecasts using the MesoNH mesoscale atmospheric model, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D19205, doi:10.1029/2005JD007007. (Pubitemid 47272006)
33. Haywood, J. M., S. R. Osborne, P. N. Francis, A. Keil, P. Formenti, M. O. Andreae, and P. H. Kaye (2003), The mean physical and optical properties of regional haze dominated by biomass burning aerosol measured from the C-130 aircraft during SAFARI 2000, J. Geophys. Res., 108(D13), 8473, doi:10.1029/2002JD002226.
34. Haywood, J. M., et al. (2008), Overview of the Dust and Biomass-Burning Experiment and African Monsoon Multidisciplinary Analysis Special Observing Period-0, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D00C17, doi:10.1029/2008JD010077.
35. Heese, B., and M. Wiegner (2008), Vertical aerosol profiles from Raman polarization lidar observations during the dry season AMMA field campaign, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D00C11, doi:10.1029/2007JD009487.
36. Heinold, B., J. Helmert, O. Hellmuth, R. Wolke, A. Ansmann, B. Marticorena, B. Laurent, and I. Tegen (2007), Regional modeling of Saharan dust events using LM-MUSCAT: Model description and case studies, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D11204, doi:10.1029/2006JD007443. (Pubitemid 47288012)
37. Herman, M., J. Deuzé, A. Marchand, B. Roger, and P. Lallart (2005), Aerosol remote sensing from POLDER/ADEOS over the ocean: Improved retrieval using a nonspherical particle model, J. Geophys. Res., 110, D10S02, doi:10.1029/2004JD004798. (Pubitemid 40919753)
38. Holben, B., et al. (1998), AERONET-A federated instrument network and data archive for aerosol characterization, Remote Sens. Environ., 66(1), 1-16, doi:10.1016/S0034-4257(98)00031-5. (Pubitemid 29360424)
39. Holtslag, A. A. M., E. I. F. de Bruijin, and H. L. Pan (1990), A high resolution air mass transformation model for short-range weather forecasting, Mon. Weather Rev., 118, 1561-1575, doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1990)118<1561: AHRAMT>2.0.CO;2.
40. Hungershoefer, K., K. Zeromskiene, Y. Iinuma, G. Helas, J. Trentmann, T. Trautmann, R. S. Parmar, A. Wiedensohler, M. O. Andreae, and O. Schmid (2008), Modelling the optical properties of fresh biomass burning aerosol produced in a smoke chamber: Results from the EFEU campaign, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8(13), 3427-3439, doi:10.5194/acp-8-3427-2008.
41. Johnson, B. T., K. P. Shine, and P. M. Forster (2004), The semidirect aerosol effect: Impact of absorbing aerosols on marine stratocumulus, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc, 130(599), 1407-1422, doi:10.1256/qj.03.61. (Pubitemid 38763055)
42. Johnson, B., B. Heese, S. McFarlane, P. Chazette, A. Jones, and N. Bellouin (2008a), Vertical distribution and radiative effects of mineral dust and biomass burning aerosol over West Africa during DABEX, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D00C12, doi:10.1029/2008JD009848.
43. Johnson, B., S. Osborne, J. Haywood, and M. Harrison (2008b), Aircraft measurements of biomass burning aerosol over West Africa during DABEX, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D00C06, doi:10.1029/2007JD009451.
44. Junker, C., and C. Liousse (2008), A global emission inventory of carbonaceous aerosol from historic records of fossil fuel and biofuel consumption for the period 1860-1997, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8(5), 1195-1207, doi:10.5194/acp-8-1195-2008.
45. Kahn, R. A., B. J. Gaitley, J. V. Martonchik, D. J. Diner, K. A. Crean, and B. Holben (2005), Multiangle Imaging Spectroradiometer (MISR) global aerosol optical depth validation based on 2 years of coincident Aerosol Robotic Network (AERONET) observations, J. Geophys. Res., 110, D10S04, doi:10.1029/ 2004JD004706. (Pubitemid 40919755)
46. Kanamitsu, M., W. Ebisuzaki, J. Woolen, S. K. Yang, J. J. Hnilo, M. Fiorino, and J. Potter (2002), NCEP/DOE AMIP-II Reanalysis (R-2), Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc, 83, 1631-1643, doi:10.1175/BAMS-83-11-1631(2002)083<1631: NAR>2.3.CO;2.
47. Kaufman, Y. J., D. Tanré, L. A. Remer, E. F. Vermote, A. Chu, and B. N. Holben (1997), Operational remote sensing of tropospheric aerosol over land from EOS moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer, J. Geophys. Res., 102(D14), 17,051-17,067, doi:10.1029/96JD03988.
48. Kiehl, J. T., J. J. Hack, G. B. Bonan, B. A. Boville, B. P. Breigleb, D. Williamson, and P. Rasch (1996), Description of the NCAR Community Climate Model (CCM3), NCAR Tech. Rep. NCAR/TN-420+STR, NCAR, Boulder, Colo.
49. Kiehl, J., J. J. Hack, G. B. Bonan, B. A. Boville, D. L. Williamson, and P. J. Rasch (1998), The National Center for Atmospheric Research Community Climate Model: CCM3, J. Clim., 11(6), 1131-1149, doi:10.1175/1520-0442(1998) 011<1131:TNCFAR>2.0.CO;2. (Pubitemid 28466184)
50. Kim, S., P. Chazette, F. Dulac, J. Sanak, B. Johnson, and S. Yoon (2009), Vertical structure of aerosols and water vapor over West Africa during the African monsoon dry season, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9(20), 8017-8038, doi:10.5194/acp-9-8017-2009.
51. Kirchstetter, T. W., T. Novakov, and P. V. Hobbs (2004), Evidence that the spectral dependence of light absorption by aerosols is affected by organic carbon, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D21208, doi:10.1029/2004JD004999. (Pubitemid 40191167)
52. Klüser, L., and T. Holzer-Popp (2010), Mineral dust effects on clouds and rainfall in the West African Sahel, Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss., 10(3), 6167-6197, doi:10.5194/acpd-10-6167-2010.
53. Konaré, A., A. S. Zakey, F. Solmon, F. Giorgi, S. Rauscher, S. Ibrah, and X. Bi (2008), A regional climate modelling study of the effect of desert dust on the West African monsoon, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D12206, doi:10.1029/2007JD009322.
54. Lau, K. M., K. M. Kim, Y. C. Sud, and G. K. Walker (2009), A GCM study of the response of the atmospheric water cycle of West Africa and the Atlantic to Saharan dust radiative forcing, Ann. Geophys., 27(10), 4023-4037, doi:10.5194/angeo-27-4023-2009.
55. Laurent, B., B. Marticorena, G. Bergametti, J. F. Lon, and N. M. Mahowald (2008), Modeling mineral dust emissions from the Sahara desert using new surface properties and soil database, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D14218, doi:10.1029/2007JD009484.
56. Lawrence, M. G., T. M. Butler, J. Steinkamp, B. R. Gurjar, and J. Lelieveld (2007), Regional pollution potentials of megacities and other major population centers, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7(14), 3969-3987, doi:10.5194/acp-7- 3969-2007. (Pubitemid 47172831)
57. Lemaître, C., C. Flamant, J. Cuesta, J. Raut, P. Chazette, P. Formenti, and J. Pelon (2010), Radiative forcing associated with a springtime case of Bodélé and Sudan dust transport over West Africa, Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss., 10(4), 8811-8858, doi:10.5194/acpd-10-8811-2010.
58. Léon, J., Y. Derimian, I. Chiapello, D. Tanré, T. Podvin, B. Chatenet, A. Diallo, and C. Deroo (2009), Aerosol vertical distribution and optical properties over M'Bour (16.96w;14.39 n), Senegal from 2006 to 2008, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9(23), 9249-9261, doi:10.5194/acp-9-9249-2009.
59. Levy, R. C., L. A. Remer, S. Mattoo, E. F. Vermote, and Y. J. Kaufman (2007), Second-generation operational algorithm: Retrieval of aerosol properties over land from inversion of moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer spectral reflectance, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D13211, doi:10.1029/2006JD007811. (Pubitemid 47408382)
60. Liousse, C., J. E. Penner, C. Chuang, J. J. Walton, H. Eddleman, and H. Cachier (1996), A global three-dimensional model study of carbonaceous aerosols, J. Geophys. Res., 101(D14), 19,411-19,432, doi:10.1029/95JD03426.
61. Liousse, C., et al. (2004), Deriving global quantitative estimates for spatial and temporal distributions of biomass burning emissions, in Emissions of Atmospheric Trace Compounds, pp. 77-120, Kluwer Acad., Norwell, Mass.
62. Liousse, C., et al. (2010), Western African aerosols modelling with updated biomass burning emission inventories in the frame of the AMMA-IDAF program, Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss., 10(3), 7347-7382, doi:10.5194/acpd-10- 7347-2010.
63. Magi, B. I., and P. V. Hobbs (2003), Effects of humidity on aerosols in southern Africa during the biomass burning season, J. Geophys. Res., 108(D13), 8495, doi:10.1029/2002JD002144.
64. Mallet, M., et al. (2008), Aerosol direct radiative forcing over Djougou (northern Benin) during the African Monsoon Multidisciplinary Analysis dry season experiment (Special Observation Period-0), J. Geophys. Res., 113, D00C01, doi:10.1029/2007JD009419.
65. Mallet, M., P. Tulet, D. Sera, F. Solmon, O. Dubovik, J. Pelon, V. Pont, and O. Thouron (2009), Impact of dust aerosols on the radiative budget, surface heat fluxes, heating rate profiles and convective activity over West Africa during march 2006, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9(18), 7143-7160, doi:10.5194/acp-9-7143- 2009.
66. Markowicz, K. M., P. J. Flatau, A. M. Vogelmann, P. K. Quinn, and E. J. Welton (2003), Clear-sky infrared aerosol radiative forcing at the surface and the top of the atmosphere, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc, 129(594), 2927-2947, doi:10.1256/qj.02.224. (Pubitemid 37299013)
67. Marticorena, B., and G. Bergametti (1995), Modeling the atmospheric dust cycle: 1. Design of a soil-derived dust emission scheme, J. Geophys. Res., 100(D8), 16,415-16,430, doi:10.1029/95JD00690.
68. McConnell, C. L., E. J. Highwood, H. Coe, P. Formenti, B. Anderson, S. Osborne, S. Nava, K. Desboeufs, G. Chen, and M. A. J. Harrison (2008), Seasonal variations of the physical and optical characteristics of Saharan dust: Results from the Dust Outflow and Deposition to the Ocean (DODO) experiment, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D14S05, doi:10.1029/2007JD009606.
69. McConnell, C. L., P. Formenti, E. J. Highwood, and M. A. J. Harrison (2010), Using aircraft measurements to determine the refractive index of Saharan dust during the DODO experiments, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10(6), 3081-3098, doi:10.5194/acp-10-3081-2010.
70. McFarlane, S. A., E. I. Kassianov, J. Barnard, C. Flynn, and T. P. Ackerman (2009), Surface shortwave aerosol radiative forcing during the atmospheric radiation measurement mobile facility deployment in Niamey, Niger, J. Geophys. Res., 114, D00E06, doi:10.1029/2008JD010491.
71. Michel, C., C. Liousse, J. Grégoire, K. Tansey, G. R. Carmichael, and J. Woo (2005), Biomass burning emission inventory from burnt area data given by the SPOT-VEGETATION system in the frame of TRACE-P and ACE-Asia campaigns, J. Geophys. Res., 110, D09304, doi:10.1029/2004JD005461. (Pubitemid 40923959)
72. Miller, R. L., I. Tegen, and J. Perlwitz (2004), Surface radiative forcing by soil dust aerosols and the hydrologic cycle, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D04203, doi:10.1029/2003JD004085.
73. Milton, S. F., G. Greed, M. E. Brooks, J. Haywood, B. Johnson, R. P. Allan, A. Slingo, and W. M. F. Grey (2008), Modeled and observed atmospheric radiation balance during the West African dry season: Role of mineral dust, biomass burning aerosol, and surface albedo, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D00C02, doi:10.1029/2007JD009741.
74. Myhre, G., A. Grini, J. M. Haywood, F. Stordal, B. Chatenet, D. Tanré, J. K. Sundet, and I. S. A. Isaksen (2003), Modeling the radiative impact of mineral dust during the Saharan Dust Experiment (SHADE) campaign, J. Geophys. Res., 108(D18), 8579, doi:10.1029/2002JD002566.
75. Myhre, G., et al. (2004), Intercomparison of satellite retrieved aerosol optical depth over the ocean, J. Atmos. Sci., 61(5), 499-513, doi:10.1175/1520-0469(2004)061<0499:IOSRAO>2.0.CO;2. (Pubitemid 38504574)
76. Myhre, G., C. Hoyle, T. Berglen, B. Johnson, and J. Haywood (2008), Modeling of the solar radiative impact of biomass burning aerosols during the Dust and Biomass-burning Experiment (DABEX), J. Geophys. Res., 113, D00C16, doi:10.1029/2008JD009857.
77. Otto, S., M. de Reus, T. Trautmann, A. Thomas, M. Wendisch, and S. Borrmann (2007), Atmospheric radiative effects of an in situ measured Saharan dust plume and the role of large particles, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7(18), 4887-4903, doi:10.5194/acp-7-4887-2007. (Pubitemid 47479270)
78. Pal, J., et al. (2007), Regional climate modeling for the developing world - The ICTP RegCM3 and regCNET, Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc, 88(9), 1395-1409, doi:10.1175/BAMS-88-9-1395. (Pubitemid 47616760)
79. Pelon, J., M. Mallet, A. Mariscal, P. Goloub, D. Tanré, D. B. Karam, C. Flamant, J. Haywood, B. Pospichal, and S. Victori (2008), Micro-lidar observations of biomass burning aerosol over Djougou (Benin) during African Monsoon Multidisciplinary Analysis Special Observation Period 0: Dust and Biomass-Burning Experiment, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D00C18, doi:10.1029/ 2008JD009976.
80. Perlwitz, J., and R. L. Miller (2010), Cloud cover increase with increasing aerosol absorptivity: A counterexample to the conventional semidirect aerosol effect, J. Geophys. Res., 115, D08203, doi:10.1029/2009JD012637.
81. Peyrillé, P., J.-P. Lafore, and J.-L. Redelsperger (2007), An idealized two-dimensional framework to study the West African monsoon, part I: Validation and key controlling factors, J. Atmos. Sci., 64(8), 2765-2782, doi:10.1175/JAS3919.1. (Pubitemid 47315481)
82. Pinker, R. T., H. Liu, S. R. Osborne, and C. Akoshile (2010), Radiative effects of aerosols in sub-Sahel Africa: Dust and biomass burning, J. Geophys. Res., 115, D15205, doi:10.1029/2009JD013335.
83. Pont, V., M. Mallet, C. Liousse, L. Gomes, F. Malavelle, F. Solmon, C. Galy, E. Gardrat, and P. Castéra (2009), Mixing of dust and carbonaceous aerosols: Three concepts of chemical scheme from AMMA dry season experiment (SOPO - January 2006) at Djougou (Benin), paper presented at AMMA Conference, AMMA, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso.
84. Prospero, J. M., P. Ginoux, O. Torres, S. E. Nicholson, and T. E. Gill (2002), Environmental characterization of global sources of atmospheric soil dust identified with the NIMBUS7 total ozone mapping spectrometer (TOMS) absorbing aerosol product, Rev. Geophys., 40(1), 1002, doi:10.1029/2000RG000095.
85. Qian, Y., F. Giorgi, Y. Huang, W. Chameides, and C. Luo (2001), Regional simulation of anthropogenic sulfur over east Asia and its sensitivity to model parameters, Tellus, Ser. B, 53(2), 171-191, doi:10.1034/j.1600-0889.2001.d01-14. x. (Pubitemid 32804564)
86. Raut, J., and P. Chazette (2008), Radiative budget in the presence of multi-layered aerosol structures in the framework of AMMA SOP-0, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8(22), 6839-6864, doi:10.5194/acp-8-6839-2008.
87. Reid, J. S., T. F. Eck, S. A. Christopher, R. Koppmann, O. Dubovik, D. P. Eleuterio, B. N. Holben, E. A. Reid, and J. Zhang (2005), A review of biomass burning emissions part III: Intensive optical properties of biomass burning particles, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 5(3), 827-849, doi:10.5194/acp-5-827-2005. (Pubitemid 40479143)
88. Russell, P., et al. (2002), Comparison of aerosol single scattering albedos derived by diverse techniques in two North Atlantic experiments, J. Atmos. Sci., 59(3), 609-619, doi:10.1175/1520-0469(2002)059<0609:COASSA>2. 0.CO;2. (Pubitemid 34838294)
89. Satheesh, S. K., and V. Ramanathan (2000), Large differences in tropical aerosol forcing at the top of the atmosphere and Earth's surface, Nature, 405(6782), 60-63, doi:10.1038/35011039. (Pubitemid 30321813)
90. Schkolnik, G., D. Chand, A. Hoffer, M. Andreae, C. Erlick, E. Swietlicki, and Y. Rudich (2007), Constraining the density and complex refractive index of elemental and organic carbon in biomass burning aerosol using optical and chemical measurements, Atmos. Environ., 41(5), 1107-1118, doi:10.1016/j. atmosenv.2006.09.035. (Pubitemid 44960910)
91. Slingo, A., et al. (2006), Observations of the impact of a major Saharan dust storm on the atmospheric radiation balance, Geophys. Res. Lett, 33, L24817, doi:10.1029/2006GL027869. (Pubitemid 47277832)
92. Slingo, A., H. E. White, N. A. Bharmal, and G. J. Robinson (2009), Overview of observations from the RADAGAST experiment in Niamey, Niger: 2. Radiative fluxes and divergences, J. Geophys. Res., 114, D00E04, doi:10.1029/2008JD010497.
93. Sokolik, I. N., and O. B. Toon (1999), Incorporation of mineralogical composition into models of the radiative properties of mineral aerosol from UV to IR wavelengths, J. Geophys. Res., 104(D8), 9423-9444, doi:10.1029/ 1998JD200048. (Pubitemid 29370745)
94. Solmon, F., F. Giorgi, and C. Liousse (2006), Aerosol modelling for regional climate studies: Application to anthropogenic particles and evaluation over a European/African domain, Tellus, Ser. B, 58(1), 51-72, doi:10.1111/j.1600-0889.2005.00155.x. (Pubitemid 43356071)
95. Solmon, F., M. Mallet, N. Elguindi, F. Giorgi, A. Zakey, and A. Konaré (2008), Dust aerosol impact on regional precipitation over western Africa, mechanisms and sensitivity to absorption properties, Geophys. Res. Lett, 35, L24705, doi:10.1029/2008GL035900.
96. Stephens, G. L. (1984), The parameterization of radiation for numerical weather prediction and climate models, Mon. Weather Rev., 112, 826, doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1984)112<0826:TPORFN>2.0.CO;2.
97. Sud, Y. C., E. Wilcox, W. K.-M. Lau, G. K. Walker, X.-H. Liu, A. Nenes, D. Lee, K.-M. Kim, Y. Zhou, and P. S. Bhattacharjee (2009), Sensitivity of boreal-summer circulation and precipitation to atmospheric aerosols in selected regions-part 1: Africa and India, Ann. Geophys., 27(10), 3989-4007, doi:10.5194/angeo-27-3989-2009.
98. Tanré, D., F. M. Bréon, J. L. Deuzé, M. Herman, P. Goloub, F. Nadal, and A. Marchand (2001), Global observation of anthropogenic aerosols from satellite, Geophys. Res. Lett., 28(24), 4555-4558, doi:10.1029/2001GL013036. (Pubitemid 34166316)
99. Todd, M. C., et al. (2008), Quantifying uncertainty in estimates of mineral dust flux: An intercomparison of model performance over the Bodélé depression, northern Chad, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D24107, doi:10.1029/2008JD010476.
100. Tulet, P., M. Mallet, V. Pont, J. Pelon, and A. Boone (2008), The 7-13 March 2006 dust storm over West Africa: Generation, transport, and vertical stratification, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D00C08, doi:10.1029/2008JD009871.
101. Tummon, F., F. Solmon, C. Liousse, and M. Tadross (2010), Simulation of the direct and semi-direct aerosol effects on the southern Africa regional climate during the biomass burning season, J. Geophys. Res., 115, D19206, doi:10.1029/2009JD013738.
102. United Nations (2005), World urbanization prospects: The 2005 revision, vol. I, Comprehensive tables, ESA/P/WP/2005, Geneva, Switzerland. (Available at www.un.org/esa/population/publications/WUP2005/2005wup.htm)
103. van der Werf, G.R., J.T. Randerson, G. J. Collatz, L. Giglio, P. S. Kasibhatla, A. F. Arellano Jr., S. C. Olsen, and E. S. Kasischke (2004), Continental-scale partitioning of fire emissions during the 1997 to 2001 El Niño/La Niña period, Science, 303(5654), 73-76, doi:10.1126/science. 1090753. (Pubitemid 38055772)
104. van der Werf, G.R., J.T. Randerson, L. Giglio, G.J. Collatz, P. S. Kasibhatla, and A. F. Arellano Jr. (2006), Interannual variability in global biomass burning emissions from 1997 to 2004, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6(11), 3423-3441, doi:10.5194/acp-6-3423-2006. (Pubitemid 44272961)
105. Wang, H., G. Shi, S. Li, W. Li, B. Wang, and Y. Huang (2006), The impacts of optical properties on radiative forcing due to dust aerosol, Adv. Atmos. Sci., 23, 431-441, doi:10.1007/s00376-006-0431-5. (Pubitemid 43772763)
106. Yoshioka, M., N. M. Mahowald, A. J. Conley, W. D. Collins, D. W. Fillmore, C. S. Zender, and D. B. Coleman (2007), Impact of desert dust radiative forcing on Sahel precipitation: Relative importance of dust compared to sea surface temperature variations, vegetation changes, and greenhouse gas warming, J. Clim., 20(8), 1445-1467, doi:10.1175/JCLI4056.1. (Pubitemid 46681943)
107. Zakey, A. S., F. Solmon, and F. Giorgi (2006), Implementation and testing of a desert dust module in a regional climate model, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6(12), 4687-4704, doi:10.5194/acp-6-4687-2006. (Pubitemid 44610571)
108. Zarzycki, C. M., and T. C. Bond (2010), How much can the vertical distribution of black carbon affect its global direct radiative forcing?, Geophys. Res. Lett., 37, L20807, doi:10.1029/2010GL044555.