Cognitive presence in asynchronous online learning: A comparison of four discussion strategies

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning

Volumn 27, Issue 3, 2011, Pages 216-227

  Darabi, A ^a   Arrastia, M C ^a   Nelson, D W ^a   Cornille, T ^a   Liang, X ^a  

^a FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Asynchronous discussions; Cognitive presence; Discussion strategies; Distance learning; Instructional strategies; Online learning

Indexed keywords

EID: 79953865814     PISSN: 02664909     EISSN: 13652729     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2010.00392.x     Document Type: Article

References (57)

1. Anderson L.W. & Krathwohl D.R., eds (2001) A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Longman, New York.
2. Anderson T.D. & Garrison D.R. (1997) New roles for learners at a distance. In Distance Learners in Higher Education: Institutional Responses for Quality Outcomes (ed. C.C. Gibson ), pp. 97-112. Atwood Publishing, Madison, WI.
3. Akyol Z., Arbaugh J.B., Cleveland-Innes M., Garrison D.R., Ice P., Richardson J.C. & Swan K. (2009) A response to the review of the community of inquiry framework. Journal of Distance Education 23, 123-136.
4. Azevedo R. & Hadwin A.F. (2005) Scaffoldng self-regulated learning and metacognition - implications for the design of computer-based scaffolds. Instructional Science 33, 367-379.
5. Baker M. (1999) Argumentation and constructive interaction. In Foundations of Argumentative Text Processing (eds P. Coirier & J. Andriessen ), pp. 179-202. Amsterdam University Press, Amsterdam.
6. Bhattacharya M. & Moallem M. (2009) Changing trends in culture and learning: its impact on cognition. In Proceedings of the World Conference on Educational Multimedia, Hypermedia and Telecommunications 2009 (eds G. Siemens & C. Fulford ), pp. 1288-1289. AACE, Chesapeake, VA. Available at: (last accessed 29 July 2010).
7. Bloom B.S. (1956) Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Handbook I: The Cognitive Domain. David McKay Co Inc, New York.
8. Brooks C.D. (2009) Effects of Process-Oriented and Product-Oriented Worked Examples and Prior Knowledge on Learner Problem Solving and Attitude: A Study in the Domain of Microeconomics. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida.
9. Brooks D. & Jeong A. (2006) Effects of pre-structuring discussion threads on group interaction and group performance in computer-supported collaborative argumentation. Distance Education 27, 371-390.
10. Brown J.S., Collins A. & Duguid P. (1989) Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher 18, 32-42.
11. Celentin P. (2007) Online training: analysis of interaction and knowledge building patterns among foreign language teachers. Journal of Distance Education 21, 39-58.
12. Choi I., Land S.M. & Turgeon A.J. (2005) Scaffolding peer-questioning strategies to facilitate metacognition during online small group discussion. Instructional Science 33, 483-511.
13. Collins A., Brown J.S. & Hollum A. (1991) Cognitive apprenticeship: making thinking visible. American Educator 6, 38-46.
14. De Wever B., Van Keer H., Schellens T. & Valcke M. (2010) Roles as a structuring tool in online discussion groups: the differential impact of different roles on social knowledge construction. Computers in Human Behavior 26, 516-523.
15. Dewey J. (1933) How We Think (Rev. ed.). D. C. Heath, Boston.
16. Dunlap J.C. & Lowenthal P.R. (2009) Tweeting the night away: using twitter to enhance social presence. Journal of Information Systems Education 20, 129-135.
17. Gagné R.M. (1985) The Conditions of Learning and Theory of Instruction, 4th edition. CBS College Publishing, New York.
18. Garrison D.R., Anderson T. & Archer W. (2000) Critical inquiry in a text-based environment computer conferencing in higher education. The Internet and Higher Education 2, 87-105.
19. Garrison D.R., Anderson T. & Archer W. (2001) Critical thinking, cognitive presence, and computer conferencing in distance education. The American Journal of Distance Education 15, 7-23.
20. Garrison D.R. & Archer W. (2007) A theory of community of inquiry. In Handbook of Distance Education, 2nd edition (eds M.G. Moore & W.G. Anderson ), pp. 77-88. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ.
21. Garrison D.R. & Cleveland-Innes M. (2005) Facilitating cognitive presence in online learning: interaction is not enough. The American Journal of Distance Education 19, 133-148.
22. Gilbert P. & Dabbagh N. (2005) How to structure online discussions for meaningful discourse: a case study. British Journal of Educational Technology 36, 5-18.
23. Goodyear P., Salmon G., Spector J.M., Steeples C. & Tickner S. (2001) Competencies for online teaching: a special report. Educational Technology Research and Development 49, 65-72.
24. Gunawardena C., Lowe C. & Anderson T. (1997) Analysis of a global online debate and the development of an interaction analysis model for examining the social construction of knowledge in computer conferencing. Journal of Educational Computing Research 17, 397-431.
25. Han Y.H. & Hill J.R. (2007) Collaborate to learn, learn to collaborate: examining the roles of context, community, and cognition in asynchronous discussion. Journal of Educational Computing Research 36, 89-123.
26. Hung D.W. & Chen D.T. (2001) Situated cognition, Vygotskian thought and learning from the communities of practice perspective: implications for the design of Web-based e-learning. Education Media International 38, 281-288.
27. Johnson D. & Johnson R. (1992) Creative Controversy: Intellectual Challenge in the Classroom. Interaction Book Company, Edina, MN.
28. Johnson R. & Johnson D.W. (1979) Type of task, and student achievement and attitudes in interpersonal cooperation, competition, and individualization. Journal of Social Psychology 108, 37-48.
29. Johnson R.T. & Johnson D.W. (2000) How can we put cooperative learning into practice. Science Teacher 67, 39.
30. Jonassen D., Davidson M., Collins M., Campbell J. & Bannan Haag B. (1995) Constructivism and computer-mediated communication in distance education. American Journal of Distance Education 9, 7-26.
31. Jonassen D.H. (1997) Instructional design model for well-structured and ill-structured problem-solving learning outcomes. Educational Technology: Research and Development 45, 65-95.
32. Jonassen D.H. (2010) Learning to Solve Problems: A Handbook. Routledge, New York.
33. Jonassen D.H. & Ionas I.G. (2008) Designing effective supports for reasoning causally. Educational Technology: Research & Development 56, 287-308.
34. Keegan D. (2002) The Future of Learning: From e-Learning to m-Learning (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED472435). Fern Universität Institute for Research into Distance Education, Hagen, Germany.
35. Land S.M. (2000) Cognitive requirements for learning with open-ended learning environments. Educational Technology Research and Development 48, 61-78.
36. Lave J. (1997) The culture of acquisition and the practice of understanding. In Situated Cognition: Social, Semiotic and Psychological Perspectives (eds D. Kirshner & J.A. Whitson ), pp. 17-36. Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ.
37. Lewis S., Pea R. & Rosen J. (2010) Beyond participation to co-creation of meaning: mobile social media in generative learning communities. Social Science Information 49, 1-19.
38. McLaughlan R.G. (2007) Instructional strategies to educate for sustainability in technology assessment. International Journal of Engineering Education 23, 201-208.
39. Meyer K.A. (2003) Face-to-face versus threaded discussions: the role of time and higher-order thinking. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks 7, 55-65.
40. Moore M.G. (1989) Three types of interaction. The American Journal of Distance Education 3, 1-6.
41. Naidu S., Menon M. & Gunawardena C. (2007) How scenario-based learning can engender reflective practice in distance education. In Finding Your Online Voice: Stories Told by Experienced Online Educators (ed. J.M. Spector ), pp. 53-72. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ.
42. Oh S. & Jonassen D.H. (2007) Scaffolding online argumentation during problem solving. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning 23, 95-110.
43. Park C.L. (2009) Replicating the use of a cognitive presence measurement tool. Journal of Interactive Online Learning 8, 140-155.
44. Pawan F., Paulus T.M., Yalcin S. & Chang C. (2003) Online learning: patterns of engagement and interaction among in-service teachers. Language & Technology 7, 119-140.
45. Picciano A.G. (2002) Beyond student perceptions: issues of interaction, presence, and performance in an online course. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks 5, 18-35.
46. Rourke L., Anderson T., Garrison R.D. & Archer W. (2001) Methodological issues in the content analysis of computer conference transcripts. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education 12, 8-22.
47. Rovai A.P. (2007) Facilitating online discussions effectively. The Internet and Higher Education 10, 77-88.
48. Rudestam K. (2004) Distributed education and the role of online learning in training professional psychologists. Professional Psychology: Research & Practice 35, 427-432.
49. Shea P., Li C.S., Swan K. & Pickett A. (2005) Developing learning community in online asynchronous college courses: the role of teaching presence. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks 9, 59-82.
50. Sing C.C. & Khine M.S. (2006) An analysis of interaction and participation patterns in online community. Educational Technology & Society 9, 250-261.
51. Slagter van Tyron P.J. & Bishop M.J. (2009) Theoretical foundations for enhancing social connectedness in online learning environments. Distance Education 30, 291-315.
52. Swan K. & Shih L.F. (2005) On the nature and development of social presence in online course discussions. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks 9, 115-136.
53. Toledo C.A. (2006) 'Does your dog bite?' Creating good questions for online discussions. International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education 18, 150-154. Available at: (last accessed 6 July 2010).
54. Vaughan N. & Garrison D.R. (2005) Creating cognitive presence in a blended faculty development community. Internet and Higher Education 8, 1-12.
55. Weinberger A. & Fischer F. (2005) A framework to analyze argumentative knowledge construction in computer-supported collaborative learning. Computers & Education 46, 71-95.
56. Whipp J. (2003) Scaffolding critical reflection in online discussions: helping prospective teachers think deeply about field experiences in urban schools. Journal of Teacher Education 54, 321-333.
57. Wilson B.G. & Meyers K.M. (2000) Situated cognition in theoretical and practical context. In Theoretical Foundations of Learning Environments (eds D.H. Jonassen & S.M. Land ), pp. 57-88. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ.