Real and perceived risks for mycotoxin contamination in foods and feeds: Challenges for food safety control

Toxins

Volumn 2, Issue 4, 2010, Pages 572-592

  Milićević, Dragan R ^a   Škrinjar, Marija ^b   Baltić, Tatjana ^a  

^a INSTITUTE OF MEAT HYGIENE AND TECHNOLOGY   (Serbia)

^b Faculty of Technology   (Serbia)

Author keywords

Food safety; Human and animal health; Mycotoxins; Risk analysis

Indexed keywords

AFLATOXIN; FUSARIOTOXIN; MYCOTOXIN; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG;

ALTERNARIA; ANIMAL FOOD; ASPERGILLUS; CARCINOGENICITY; CLAVICEPS; DEVELOPING COUNTRY; ECONOMIC EVALUATION; EXPOSURE; FOOD CONTAMINATION; FOOD QUALITY; FOOD SAFETY; FUNGUS GROWTH; FUSARIUM; GENOTOXICITY; HUMAN; LAW; NEPHROTOXICITY; NONHUMAN; PENICILLIUM; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; STACHYBOTRYS; TOXIN ANALYSIS;

ANIMAL FEED; ANIMALS; FOOD CONTAMINATION; FOOD SAFETY; HUMANS; MYCOTOXINS; RISK;

ANIMALIA; ASPERGILLUS; CLAVICEPS; FUSARIUM; STACHYBOTRYS;

EID: 78650838403     PISSN: None     EISSN: 20726651     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/toxins2040572     Document Type: Review

References (116)

1. Overy, D.P.; Seifert, K.A.; Savard, M.E.; Frisvad, J.C. Spoilage fungi and their mycotoxins in commercially marketed chestnuts. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2003, 2737, 1-9.
2. Logrieco, A., Visconti, A., Eds.; An Overview of Toxigenic Fungi and Mycotoxins in Europe; Kluwer Academic Publishers: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 2004; p. 259
3. Domijan, A.-M.; Peraica, M.; Miletic-Medved, M.; Lucic, A.; Fuchs, R. Two different clean-up procedures for liquid chromatographic determination of ochratoxin A in urine. J. Chromatogr. B 2003, 798, 317-321.
4. Dinis, A.M.P.; Lino, C.M.; Pena, A.S. Ochratoxin A in nephropathic patients from two cities of central zone in Portugal. J. Pharmaceut. Biomed. Anal. 2007, 44, 553-557.
5. Culvenor, C.C.J.; Edgar, J.A.; Mackay, M.F.; Gorst-Allman, C.P.; Marasas, W.F.O.; Steyn, P.S.; Vleggaar, R.; Wessels, P.L. Structure elucidation and absolute configuration of phomopsin A, a hexapeptide mycotoxin produced by Phomopsis leptostromiformis. Tetrahedron1989,45, 235-2372.
6. Steyn, P.S.; Vleggaar, R. Tremorgenic Mycotoxins. Fortschr. Chem. Org. Naturst. 1985, 48, 1-80.
7. CAST. Mycotoxins: Risks in Plan t, Animal and Human Systems, Report No. 139, Council for Agricultural Science and Technology: Ames, IA, USA, 2003.
8. Jarvis, B.B. Chemistry and toxicology of molds isolated from water-damaged buildings, Mycotoxins and Food Safety. Adv. Expt. Med. Biol. 2002, 504, 43-52.
9. Purokivi, M.K.; Hirvonen, M.-R.; Randell, J.T.; Roponen, M.; Meklin, T.; Nevalainen, A.; Husman, T.; Tukiainen, H.O. Changes in pro-inflammatory cytokines in association with exposure to moisture-damaged building microbes. Eur. J. Epidemiol. 2001, 18, 951-958.
10. Vesper, S.J.; Vesper, M.J. Stachylysin may be a cause of hemorrhaging in humans exposed to Stachybotrys chartarum. Infect. Immun. 2002, 70, 2065-2069.
11. Bennett, J.W.; Klich, M. Mycotoxins. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2003, 16, 497-516.
12. Shapira, R.; Paster, N. Control of mycotoxins in storage and techniques for their decontamination. In Mycotoxins in Food. Detection and Control; Magan, N., Olsen, M., Eds.; CRC Press, Woodhead Publishin Limited: Abington Hall, Abington, MA, USA, 2004; pp. 190-223.
13. Boudra, H.; Barnouin, J.; Dragacci, S.; and. Morgavi, D.P. Aflatoxin M1 and Ochratoxin A in Raw Bulk Milk from French Dairy Herds. J. Dairy Sci. 2007, 90, 3197-3201.
14. Gelderblom, W.C.A.; Abel, S.; Smuts, C.M.; Marnewick, J.; Mrasas, W.F.O.; Lemmer, E.R.; Ramljak, D. Fumonisin-induced hepatocarcinogenesis: Mechanisms related to cancer initiation and promotion. Environ. Health Perspect. 2001, 109, 291-300.
15. Berthiller, F.; Dall'Asta, C.; Schuhmacher, R.; Lemmens, M.; Adam, G.; Krska, A.R. Masked mycotoxins: determination of a deoxynivalenol glucoside in artificially and naturally contaminated wheat by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2005a, 53, 3421-3425.
16. Berthiller, F.; Schuhmacher, R.; Buttinger, G.; Krska, R. Rapid simultaneous determination of major type A- and B-trichothecenes as well as zearalenone in maize by high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. J. Chromatogr. A 2005b, 1062, 209-216.
17. Gareis, M. Maskierte Mykotoxine(Masked Mycotoxins). Übers Tierernährung. 1994,22, 104-113.
18. Schneweis, I.; Meyer, K.; Engelhardt, G.; Bauer, J. Occurrence of zearalenone-4-β-D- glucopyranoside in wheat. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2002, 50, 1736-1738.
19. Gareis, M.; Bauer, J.; Thiem, J.; Plank, G.; Grabley, S.; Gedek, B. Cleavage of zearalenone- glycoside, a ''masked'' mycotoxin, during digestion in swine. J. Vet. Med. B 1990, 37, 236-240.
20. Kuiper-Goodman, T. Risk assessment to humans of mycotoxins in animal derived food products. Vet. Hum. Toxicol. 1991, 33, 325-333.
21. Bennett, J.W.; Klich, M. Mycotoxins. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2003, 16, 497-516.
22. Kuiper-Goodman, T. Risk assessment and risk management of mycotoxins in food. In Mycotoxins in Food. Detection and Control; Magan, N., Olsen, M., Eds.; CRC Press, Woodhead Publishin Limited: Abington Hall, Abington, MA, USA, 2004; pp. 3-31.
23. Gleadle, A.E.; Mortby, E.M.; Hatch, A.; Burt, R. Scientific Co-operation Task on Aflatoxins: the co-ordinators view. In Mycotoxins and Phycotoxins: Developments in Chemistry, Toxicology and Food Safety; Miraglia, M., van Egmond, H., Brera, C.; Gilbert, J., Eds.; Alaken Inc.: Fort Collins, CO, USA, 1998.
24. van Egmond, H.P.; Speijers, G.J.A. Survey of data on the incidence of ochratoxin A in food and feed worldwide. Nat. Toxins 1994, 3, 125-144.
25. Jorgensen, K. Survey of pork, poultry, coffee, beer and pulses for ochratoxin A. Food Addit. Contam. 1998, 15, 550-554.
26. Vrabcheva, T.; Gareis, M.; Bresch, H.; Bedectel, C.; Engel, G.; Majerus, P.; Rosner, H.; Wolff, J. Occurrence of ochratoxins A and B in spices and herbs. Rev. Med. Vet. 1998, 533.
27. Otteneder, H.; Majerus, P. Occurrence of ochratoxin A in wines: influence of the type of wine and its geographical origin. Food Addit. Contam. 2000, 17, 793-798.
28. Otteneder, H.; Majerus, P. Ochratoxin A in coffee: nation-wide evaluation of data collected by German Food Control (1995-1999). Food Addit. Contam. 2001, 18, 431-435.
29. Thirumala-Devi, K.; Mayo, M.A.; Reddy, G.; Emmanuel, K.E.; Larondelle, Y.; Reddy, D.V. Occurrence of ochratoxin A in black pepper, coriander, ginger and turmeric in India. Food Addit. Contam. 2001, 18, 830-835.
30. Milićević, D.; Jurić, V.; Stefanović, S.; Jovanović, M.; Janković, S. Survey of Slaughtered Pigs for Occurrence of Ochratoxin A and Porcine Nephropathy in Serbia. Int. J. Mo l. Sci. 2008, 9, 2169-2183.
31. Speijers, G.J.A.; Speijers, M.H.M. Combined toxic effect of mycotoxins. Toxicol. Lett. 2004, 153, 91-98.
32. van Egmond, H.P. Food Addit Contam 6: 4. Food and Agriculture Organization (1997) Worldwide regulations for mycotoxins 1995. A compendium; FAO Food and Nutrition Paper 64. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Rome, Italy, 1989; pp. 139-188.
33. Veldman, A.J.; Meijs, A.C.; Borggreve, G.J.; Heeresvan der Tol, J.J. Carry-over of aflatoxins from cows' food to milk. Anim. Prod. 1992, 55, 163-168.
34. Bryden, W.L.; Logrieco, A.; Abbas, H.K.; Porter, J.K.; Vesonder, R.F.; Richard, J.L.; Cole, R.J. Other significant fusarium mycotoxins. In Fursarium: Paul E. Nelson Memorial Symposium; Summerell B.A., Leslie J.F., Backhouse, D., Bryden W.L., Burgess L.W., Eds.; APS Press: St Paul, MN, USA, 2001; pp. 360-392.
35. Bennett, J.W., Klich, M. Mycotoxins. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2003, 16, 497-516.
36. Sudakin, D.L. Trichothecenes in the environment: relevance to human health. Toxicol. Lett. 2003, 143, 97-107.
37. Binder, E.M.; Tan, L.M.; Chin, L.J.; Handl, J.; Richard, J. Worldwide occurrence of mycotoxins in commodities, animal feed and feed ingredients. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 2007, 137, 265-282.
38. Turner, P.C.; Nikiema, P.; Wild, C.P. Fumonisin contamination of food: progress in development of biomarkers to better assess human health risks. Mut. Res. 1999, 443, 81-93.
39. Eriksen, G.S.; Pettersson, H. Toxicological evaluation of trichothecenes in animal feed. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 2004, 114, 205-239.
40. Pestka, J. J. Fungal toxins in raw and fermented meats, In: Fermented Meats; Campbell-Platt, G., Cook, P.E., Eds.; Blackie Academic and Professional: Glasgow, UK, 1995; pp. 194-216.
41. Meklin, T.; Husman, T.; Vepsalainen, A.; Vahteristo, M.; Koivisto, J.; Halla-Aho, J.; Hyvarinen, A.; Moschandreas, D.; Nevalainen, A. Indoor air microbes and respiratory symptoms of children in moisture damaged and reference schools. Indoor Air 2002, 12, 175-183.
42. Koskinen, O.; Husman, T.; Meklin, T.; Nevalainen, A. Adverse health effects in children associated with moisture and mold observations in houses. Int. J. Environ. Health Res. 1999, 9, 143-156.
43. Gravesen, S.; Nielsen, P.A.; Iversen, R.; Nielsen, K.F. Microfungal contamination of damp buildings-examples of risk constructions and risk materials. Environ. Health Perspect. 1999, 107, 505-508.
44. Dales, R.E.; Miller, J.D. Airborne microorganisms and disease-residential buildings-related illness: epidemiologic and case-related evidence. In Microorganisms in Home and Indoor Work Environments; Flannigan, B., Samson, R.A., Miller, J.D., Eds.; Taylor & Francis: London, UK, 2002; pp. 83-99.
45. Nielsen, K.F. Mould growth on Building materials. Secondary metabolites, mycotoxins and biomarkers. Ph.D. Thesis. BioCentrum-DTU, Technical University of Denmark. 2002. Available online: http:// www.biocentrum.dtu.dk/mycology/publications/phd-kfn.pdf (accessed in 2002).
46. Nielsen, K.F. Mycotoxin production by indoor molds. Fungal. Genet. Biol. 2003, 39, 103-117.
47. Wilkins, K.; Nielsen, K.F.; Din, S.U. Patterns of volatile metabolites and nonvolatile trichothecenes produced by isolates of Stachybotrys, Fusarium, Trichoderma, Trichothecium and Memnoniella. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2003, 10, 162-166.
48. Jarvis, B.B. Stachybotrys chartarum: a fungus for our time. Phytochemistry 2003, 64, 53-60.
49. Barrett, J. Mycotoxins: of molds and maladies. Environ. Health Perspect. 2000, 108, A20-A23.
50. IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer). IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks tol Her bal Med icine, Some Mycoto,xins Naphthalene and Styrene; IARC: Lyon, France, 2002.
51. IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer). IARC Some Naturally Occurrin g H eterocyclic Aromatic Amines and Mycotoxins Aflatoxins, WHO IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans; IARC: Lyon, France, 1993a; Volume 56, pp. 245-395.
52. Parkin, D.M.; Bray, F.; Ferlay J. Global cancer statistics, 2002 CA-A. Cancer J. Clin. 2005, 55, 74-108.
53. Bray, F.; Sankila, R.; Ferlay, J.; Parkin, D. M. Estimates of cancer incidence and mortality in Europe in 1995, Eur. J. Cancer 2002, 38, 99-166.
54. Weidenböorner, M. Encyclopedia of Food Mycotoxins; Springer-Verlag: Berlin, Germany, 2001; ISBN 3540675566.
55. Bhat, R.V.; Shetty, P.H.; Amruth, R.P.; Sudershan, R.V. A foodborne disease outbreak due to the consumption of moldy sorghum and maize containing fumonisin mycotoxins, J. Toxicol. Clin. Toxicol. 1997, 35, 249-255.
56. Marasas, W.F.O.; Jaskiewicz, K.; Venter, F.S.; Van Schalkwyk, D.J. Fusarium moniliforme contamination of maize in esophageal cancer areas in Transkei, S. Afr Med. J. 1988,73, 110-114.
57. Colvin, B.M.; Harrison, L.R. Fumonisin-induced pulmonary edema and hydrothorax in swine. Mycopathologia 1992, 117, 79-82.
58. Halloy, D.J.; Gustin, P.G.; Bouhet, S.; Oswald, I.P. Oral exposure to culture material extract containing fumonisins predisposes swine to the development of pneumonitis caused by Pasteurella multocida. Toxicology 2005, 213, 34-44.
59. l, Onderstepoort. J. Vet. Res. 1990, 57, 269-275.
60. Stevens, V.L.; Tang, J. Fumonisin B1-induced sphingolipid depletion inhibits vitamin uptake via the glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored folate receptor. J. Biolog. Chem.1997,272, 18020-18025.
61. Marasas, W.F.O.; Riley, R.T.; Hendricks, K.A.; Stevens, V.L.; Sadler, T.W.; Gelineau-van Waes, J.; Missmer, S.A.; Cabrera, J.; Torres, O.; Gelderblom, W.C.A. Fumonisins disrupt sphingolipid metabolism, folate transport, and neural tube development in embryo culture and in vivo, A potential risk factor for human neural tube defects among populations consuming fumonisin-contaminated maize. J. Nutrit. 2004, 134, 711-716.
62. Gelderblom, W.C.A.; Lebepe-Mazur, S.; Snijman, P.W.; Abel, S.; Swanevelder, S.; Kriek, N.P.J.; Marasas, W.O.F. Toxicological effects in rats chonically fed low dietary levels of fumonisin B1. Toxicology 2001, 161, 39-51.
63. Edrington, T.S.; Kamps-Holtzapple, C.A.; Harvey, R.B.; Kubena, L.F.; Elissalde, M.H.; Rottinghaus, G.E. Acute hepatic and renal toxicity in lambs dosed with fumonisin-containing culture material. J. Anim. Sci. 1995, 73, 508-515.
64. Bhandari, N.; Brown, C.C.; Sharma, R.P. Fumonisin B1-induced localized activation of cytokine network in mouse liver. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2002, 40, 1483-1491.
65. Dombrink-Kurtzman, M.A. Fumonisin and beauvericin induce apoptosis in turkey peripheral blood lymphocytes. Mycopathologia 2003, 156, 357-364.
66. EC (European Commission), 2003b. Updated opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food on FumonisinB1,B2andB3.Expressedon4April2003. http://europa.eu.int/comm/food/fs/sc/scf/out185_en.pdf.
67. FAO/WHO (Food and Agriculture Organization/World Health Organization). Evaluation of certain mycotoxins in food. Fifty-sixth report of the joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives, WHO Technical Report Series 906; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland. 2007.
68. Eriksen, G.S.; Alexander, J. Fusarium toxins in cereals- a risk assessment. In Nordic Council of Ministers, TemaNord 502, Copenhagen, Denmark, 1998.
69. Luo, X.Y. Outbreaks of moldy cereals poisoning in China. In Issues in Food Safety, Toxicology Forum, Washington DC, USA, 1988; pp. 56-63;
70. Bhat, R.V.; Beedu, S.R.; Ramakrishna, Y.; Munshi, K.L. Outbreak of trichothecene mycotoxicosis associated with consumption of mould-damaged wheat production in Kashmir Valley: Lanceti, India, 1989; pp. 35-37.
71. Eriksen, G.S.; Pettersson, H. Toxicological evaluation of trichothecenes in animal feed. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 2004, 114, 205-239.
72. EFSA (European Food Safety Agency). Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain on a request from the Commission related to deoxynivalenol (DON) as undesirable substance in animal feed. EFSA J. 2004, 73, 1-41.
73. SCOOP. SCOOP TASK 3.2.10: Collection of occurrence data of Fusarium toxins in food and assessment of dietary intake by the population of EU Member States. Available online: http://europa.eu.int/comm/food/fs/sc/scf/index_en.html (accessed on 26 March 2007).
74. Benford, D.; Boyle, C.; Dekant, W.; Fuchs, R.; Gaylor, D.W.; Hard, G.; McGregor, D.B.; Pitt, J.I.; Plestina, R.; Shephard, G.; Verger, P.J.P.; Walker, R. Ochratoxin A. In Safety Evaluation of Certain Mycotoxins in Food; WHO Food Additives Series No. 47, FAO Food and Nutrition Paper No. 74, Prepared by the 56th Meeting of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA), WHO, Geneva, Switzerland, 2001; pp. 281-415.
75. Castegnaro, M.; Canadas, D.; Vrabcheva, T.; Petkova-Bocharova, T.; Chernozemsky, I.N.; Pfohl-Leszkowicz, A. Balkan endemic nephropathy: Role of ochratoxin A through biomarkers. Mol. Nutrit. Food Res. 2006, 50, 519-529.
76. IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer). Some Naturally Occurring Substances: Food Items and Constituents, Heterocyclic Aromatic Amines and Mycotoxin,sOchratoxin A. WHO IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans; IARC: Lyon, France, 1993b; Volume 56, pp. 489-521.
77. Molinié, A.; Faucet, V.; Castegnaro, M.; Pfohl-Leszkowicz, A. Analysis of some breakfast cereals on the French market for their contents of ochratoxin A, citrinin and fumonisin B1: Development of a method for simultaneous extraction of ochratoxin A and citrinin. Food Chem. 2005, 92, 391-400.
78. SCF (Scientific Committee on Food). Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food on Fusarium Toxins, Parts1-6, Final2002; European Commission, Health & Consumer Protection Directorate-General, 2002.
79. Saenz de Rodrigues, C.A.; Bongiovanni, A.M.; Conde de Borrego, L. An epidemic of precocious development in Puerto Rican children. J. Pediatr. 1985, 107, 393-396.
80. Campbell, G.D. Trichothecene mycotoxicosis B a new entity? S. Afr. Med. J. 1991, 80, 361-362.
81. Sohn, H.B.; Seo, J.A.; Lee, Y.W. Co-occurrence of Fusarium mycotoxins in mouldy and healthy corn from Korea. Food Addit. Contam. 1999, 16, 153-158.
82. Heussner, A.H.; Dietrich, D.R.; O'Brien, E. In vitro investigation of individual and combined cytotoxic effects of ochratoxin A and other selected mycotoxins on renal cells. Toxicol. in Vitro 2006, 20, 332-341.
83. WHO (World Health Organization). Evaluation of Certain Food Additives and Contaminants. Aflatoxins. Forty-ninth report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives, WHO Technical Report Series 884, WHO Geneva, Switzerland, 1999; pp. 69-77.
84. WHO (World Health Organization). Evaluation of Certain Food Additives and Contaminants. Zearalenone. Fifty-third report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives, WHO Technical Report Series 896, WHO Geneva, Switzerland, 2000; pp. 93-96.
85. WHO (World Health Organization). Evaluation of Certain Mycotoxins in Food. Fifty-sixth report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives, WHO Technical Report Series 906, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, 2002; p. 70.
86. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). Safety Evaluation of Certain Mycotoxins in Food. Prepared by the Fifty-sixth meeting of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA); FAO Food and Nutrition Paper 74, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy, 2001; p. 705
87. Miraglia, M.; Dee Santis, B.; Minardi, V.;. Debegnach, F.; Brera, C. The role of sampling in mycotoxin contamination: A holistic view. Food Addit. Contam. 2005, 31-36.
88. South, P.; Egan, S.K.; Troxell, T.; Bolger, P.M. US Food and Drug Admintration's Dioxin Monitoring Program. Organohalogen Compd. 2004, 66, 2117-2121.
89. Whitaker, T.B.; Giesbrecht, F.; Wu, J. Suitability of several statistical models to simulate observed distribution of sample test results in inspections of aflatoxin-contaminated peanut lots. J. AOAC Int. 1996, 79, 981-988.
90. Hart, L. P.; Schabenberger, O. Variability of vomitoxin in truckloads of wheat in a wheat scab epidemic year. Plant Dis. 1998, 82, 625-630;
91. Whitaker, T.B. Sampling foods for mycotoxins. Food Addit. Contam. 2006, 23, 50-61.
92. Dickens, J.W.; Whitaker, T.B. Sampling and sample preparation. In Environmental Carcinogens-Selected Methods of Analysis. Some Mycotoxins; Egan, H., Stoloff, L., Scott, P., Castegnaro, M., O'Neill, J.K., Borstch, H., Eds.; International Agency for Research on Cancer: Lyon, France, 1982; Volume 5, pp. 17-32.
93. European Commission (EC). Commission Directive No. 401/2006 Sampling method. Off. J. Eur. Communities 2006, L70, 12.
94. AOAC International. Official Methods of Analysis of AOAC International,18th ed.; AOAC International: Gaithersburg, MD, USA, 2005.
95. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). Worldwide Regulations for Mycotoxins in Food and Feed in 2003; FAO Food and Nutrition Paper 81, FAO/ UN: Rome, Italy, 2004.
96. Commission of the European Communities. Commission Regulation (EC) No. 401/2006 of 23 February 2006 laying down the methods of sampling and analysis for the official control of the levels of mycotoxins in foodstuffs. Off. J. EU Communities 2006, L70, 12-34.
97. Krska, R.; Baumgartner, S.; Josephs, R. The state-of-the-art in the analysis of type-A and -B trichothecene mycotoxins in cereals. Fresenius. J. Anal. Chem. 2001, 371, 285-299.
98. Anklam, E.; Stroka, J.; Boenke, A. Acceptance of analytical methods for implementation of EU legislation with a focus on mycotoxins. Food Control 2002, 13, 173-183.
99. Schuller, P.L.; Van Egmond, H. P.; Stoloff, L. Limits and regulations on mycotoxins, In Proc Int Symp on Mycotoxins, 6-8 September 1981, Cairo, Egypt, 1983; pp. 111-129.
100. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). Worldwide Regulations for Mycotoxins 1995, A Compendium; FAO Food and Nutrition Paper 64. FAO/UN: Rome, Italy, 1997.
101. Berg, T. Development of the codex standard for contaminants and toxins in food. In International Standards for Food Safety; Rees, N.; Watson, D., Eds.; Aspen Publishers: Gaithersburg, MD, USA, 2000.
102. CAC (Codex Alimentarius Commission). Procedural Manual, 11th ed.; Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme, FAO: Rome, Italy, 2000.
103. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). Preamble and annexes. Codex general standard for contaminants and toxins in food; CODEX-STAN 193-1995 (Rev.1-1997). Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme, FAO: Rome, Italy, 2000.
104. CAST. Mycotoxins: Economic and Health Risks. Report No. 116. Council for Agricultural Science and Technology: Ames, IA, USA, 1989.
105. Miller, J.D. Global significance of mycotoxins. In Mycotoxins and Phycotoxins-Developments in Chemistry; Miraglia, M., van Egmond, H., Brera, C., Gilbert, J., Eds.; Toxicology and Food Safety Alaken Inc.: Ford Collins, CO, USA, 1998; pp. 3-15.
106. Wu, F. Mycotoxin risk assessment for the purpose of setting international regulatory standards. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2004, 38, 4049-4055.
107. Rustom, I.Y.S. Aflatoxin in food and feed: occurrence, legislation and inactivation by physical methods. Food Chem. 1997, 59, 57-67.
108. Yi{dotless}lmaz, A.; Ozay, G. Gi{dotless}da ve yemlerde mikotoksinlerin detoksifikasyonu. Gi{dotless}da Dergisi 2001, 7, 80-84.
109. CAC (Codex Alimentarius Commission). Proposed Draft Code of Practice for th e Prevention (Reduction) of Mycotoxin Contamination in Cereals, Including Annexes on Ochratoxin A, Zearalenone, Fumonisins and Trichothecenes; CX/FAC 02/21, Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme: Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 2002.
110. Gendloff, E.H.; Rossmam, E.C.; Casale, W.L.; Isleib, T.G.; Hart, L.P. Components of resistance to Fusarium ear rot in field corn. Phytopathology 1986, 76, 684-688.
111. Reid, L.M.; Mather, D.E.; Bolton, A.T.; Hamilton, R.I. Evidence for a gene for silk resistance to Fusarium graminearum ear rot of maize. J. Hered 1994, 85, 118-121.
112. Yin, M.-C.; Cheng, W.-S. Inhibition of Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus flavus by some herbs and spices. J. Food Prot. 1998, 61, 123-125.
113. Juglal, S.; Govinden, R.; Odhav, B. Spice oils for the control of co-occurring mycotoxin-producing fungi. J. Food Prot. 2002, 65, 683-687.
114. Bata, A.; L ́asztity, R. Detoxification of mycotoxincontaminated food and feed by microorganisms. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 1999, 10, 223-228.
115. El-Gendy, S.M.; Marth, E.H. Growth of aflatoxin production by Aspergillus parasiticus in the presence of Lactobacillus casei. J. Food Prot. 1981, 44, 211-212.
116. Sinha, K.K. Detoxification of mycotoxins and food safety. In Mycotoxins in Agricultur e and Food Safety; Sinha, K.K., Bhatnagar, D., Eds.; Marcel Dekker, Inc.: New York, NY, USA, 1998, 381-405.