Nicotine reduction revisited: Science and future directions

Tobacco Control

Volumn 19, Issue 5, 2010, Pages

  Hatsukami, Dorothy K ^a   Perkins, Kenneth A ^b   Lesage, Mark G ^a   Ashley, David L ^c   Henningfield, Jack E ^d   Benowitz, Neal L ^e   Backinger, Cathy L ^f   Zeller, Mitch ^d  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^c NATIONAL CENTER FOR ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH   (United States)

^d PINNEY ASSOCIATES   (United States)

^e UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^f NATIONAL CANCER INSTITUTE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

NICOTINE;

ANIMAL; ARTICLE; CHEMISTRY; GOVERNMENT REGULATION; HEALTH CARE POLICY; HUMAN; LEGAL ASPECT; MORTALITY; SMOKING; SMOKING CESSATION; TOBACCO; TOBACCO DEPENDENCE; TOBACCO INDUSTRY; UNITED STATES;

ANIMALS; GOVERNMENT REGULATION; HEALTH POLICY; HUMANS; NICOTINE; SMOKING; SMOKING CESSATION; TOBACCO; TOBACCO INDUSTRY; TOBACCO USE DISORDER; UNITED STATES;

EID: 77958611317     PISSN: 09644563     EISSN: 14683318     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1136/tc.2009.035584     Document Type: Article

References (156)

1. US Congress. Family smoking prevention and tobacco control and federal retirement reform. In: Congress US, ed. Public Law 111-31-June 22, 2009. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2009.
2. IOM (Institute of Medicine). Clearing the smoke: Assessing the science base for tobacco harm reduction. In: Stratton K, Shetty P, Wallace R, Bondurant S, eds. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 2001.
3. Benowitz NL, Henningfield JE. Establishing a nicotine threshold for addiction. The implications for tobacco regulation. N Engl J Med 1994;331:123-5.
4. Redhead CS, Burrows VK. FDA Tobacco Regulation: The Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act of 2009. CRS Report for Congress. Congressional Research Service R40475, 2009:7-5700.
5. US Department of Health & Human Services. The health consequences of smoking: nicotine and addiction. A report of the Surgeon General. US Department of Health & Human Services, 1988.
6. Food and Drug Administration. Regulations restricting the sale and distribution of cigarettes and smokeless tobacco products to protect children and adolescents; proposed reule analysis regarding FDA's jurisdiction over nicotine-containing cigarettes and smokeless tobacco products; notice. Fed regist 1995;60:41314-792.
7. Food and Drug Administration. Regulations restricting the sale and distribution of cigarettes and smokeless tobacco to protect children and adolescents; final rule. Fed regist 1996;61:44396-5318.
8. World Health Organization. Advancing knowledge on regulating tobacco products (monograph). Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization, 2001.
9. Royal College of Physicians of London. Nicotine addiction in britain. a report of the tobacco advisory group. London: Royal College of Physicians of London, 2000.
10. Tengs TO, Ahmad S, Savage JM, et al. The AMA proposal to mandate nicotine reduction in cigarettes: a simulation of the population health impacts. Prev Med 2005;40:170-80.
11. Henningfield JE, Benowitz NL, Slade J, et al. Reducing the addictiveness of cigarettes. Council on Scientific Affairs, American Medical Association. Tob Control 1998;7:281-93.
12. Baldinger B, Hasenfratz M, Battig K. Effects of smoking abstinence and nicotine abstinence on heart rate, activity and cigarette craving under field conditions. Hum Psychopharmacol 1995;10:127-36.
13. Brauer LH, Behm FM, Lane JD, et al. Individual differences in smoking reward from de-nicotinized cigarettes. Nicotine Tob Res 2001;3:101-9.
14. Breland AB, Buchhalter AR, Evans SE, et al. Evaluating acute effects of potential reduced-exposure products for smokers: clinical laboratory methodology. Nicotine Tob Res 2002;4(Suppl 2):S131-40.
15. Buchhalter AR, Schrinel L, Eissenberg T. Withdrawal-suppressing effects of a novel smoking system: comparison with own brand, not own brand, and de-nicotinized cigarettes. Nicotine Tob Res 2001;3:111-18.
16. Butschky MF, Bailey D, Henningfield JE, et al. Smoking without nicotine delivery decreases withdrawal in 12-hour abstinent smokers. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1995;50:91-6.
17. Dallery J, Houtsmuller EJ, Pickworth WB, et al. Effects of cigarette nicotine content and smoking pace on subsequent craving and smoking. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2003;165:172-80.
18. Eid NC, Fant RV, Moolchan ET, et al. Placebo cigarettes in a spaced smoking paradigm. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2005;81:158-64.
19. Gross J, Lee J, Stitzer ML. Nicotine-containing versus de-nicotinized cigarettes: effects on craving and withdrawal. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1997;57:159-65.
20. Rose J, Behm FM, Westman EC, et al. Pharmacologic and sensorimotor components of satiation in cigarette smoking. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2003;76:243-50.
21. Rose J, Behm FM, Westman EC et al. Dissociating nicotine and nonnicotine components of cigarette smoking. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2000;67:71-81.
22. Perkins KA, Ciccocioppo M, Conklin CA, et al. Mood influences on acute smoking responses are independent of nicotine intake and dose expectancy. J Abnorm Psychol 2008;117:79-93.
23. Westman EC, Behm FM, Rose JE. Dissociating the nicotine and airway sensory effects of smoking. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1996;53:309-15.
24. Westman EC, Levin ED, Rose JE. Smoking while wearing the nicotine patch: is smoking satisfying or harmful? Clin Res 1992;40:871A.
25. Pickworth WB, Fant RV, Nelson RA, et al. Pharmacodynamic effects of new de-nicotinized cigarettes. Nicotine Tob Res 1999;1:357-64.
26. Rusted JM, Mackee A, Williams R et al. Deprivation state but not nicotine content of the cigarette affects responding by smokers on a progressive ratio task. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1998;140:411-17.
27. Shahan TA, Bickel WK, Badger GJ, et al. Sensitivity of nicotine-containing and de-nicotinized cigarette consumption to alternative non-drug reinforcement: a behavioral economic analysis. Behav Pharmacol 2001;12:277-84.
28. Shahan TA, Bickel WK, Madden GJ et al. Comparing the reinforcing efficacy of nicotine containing and de-nicotinized cigarettes: a behavioral economic analysis. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1999;147:210-16.
29. Donny EC, Houtsmuller E, Stitzer ML. Smoking in the absence of nicotine: behavioral, subjective and physiological effects over 11 days. Addiction 2007;102:324-34.
30. Benowitz NL, Jacob P 3rd, Herrera B. Nicotine intake and dose response when smoking reduced-nicotine content cigarettes. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2006;80:703-14.
31. Benowitz NL, Hall SM, Stewart S, et al. Nicotine and carcinogen exposure with smoking of progressively reduced nicotine content cigarette. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2007;16:2479-85.
32. Benowitz NL, Dains KM, Hall SM, et al. Progressive commercial cigarette yield reduction: biochemical exposure and behavioral assessment. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2009;18:876-83.
33. Stepanov I, Jensen J, Hatsukami D, et al. Tobacco-specific nitrosamines in new tobacco products. Nicotine Tob Res 2006;8:309-13.
34. Henningfield JE, Pankow J, Garrett B. Ammonia and other chemical base tobacco additives and cigarette nicotine delivery: issues and research needs. Nicotine Tob Res 2004;6:199-205.
35. Strasser AA, Lerman C, Sanborn PM, et al. New lower nicotine cigarettes can produce compensatory smoking and increased carbon monoxide exposure. Drug Alcohol Depend 2007;86:294-300.
36. Donny EC, Jones M. Prolonged exposure to denicotinized cigarettes with or without transdermal nicotine. Drug Alcohol Depend 2009;104:23-33.
37. Brody AL, Mandelkern MA, Costello MR et al. Brain nicotinic acetylcholine receptor occupancy: effect of smoking a denicotinized cigarette. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2009;12:305-16.
38. Picciotto MR, Addy NA, Mineur YS et al. It is not "either/or": activation and desensitization of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors both contribute to behaviors related to nicotine addiction and mood. Prog Neurobiol 2008;84:329-42.
39. Lu Y, Marks MJ, Collins AC. Desensitization of nicotinic agonist-induced [3H] gamma-aminobutyric acid release from mouse brain synaptosomes is produced by subactivating concentrations of agonists. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1999;291:1127-34.
40. Hatsukami D, Kotlyar M, Hertsgaard LA et al. Reduced nicotine content cigarettes: effects on toxicant exposure, dependence and cessation. Addiction 2010;105:343-55.
41. Becker KM, Rose JE, Albino AP. A randomized trial of nicotine replacement therapy in combination with reduced-nicotine cigarettes for smoking cessation. Nicotine Tob Res 2008;10:1139-48.
42. Rezaishiraz H, Hyland A, Mahoney MC et al. Treating smokers before the quit date: can nicotine patches and denicotinized cigarettes reduce cravings? Nicotine Tob Res 2007;9:1139-46.
43. Rose J, Behm FM, Westman EC, et al. Precessation treatment with nicotine skin patch facilitates smoking cessation. Nicotine Tob Res 2006;8:89-101.
44. Perkins KA, Stitzer M, Lerman C. Medication screening for smoking cessation: a proposal for new methodologies. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2006;184:628-36.
45. Finnegan JK, Larson PS, Haag HB. The role of nicotine in the cigarette habit. Science 1945;102:94-6.
46. ÓLoughlin J, DiFranza J, Tyndale RF et al. Nicotine-dependence symptoms are associated with smoking frequency in adolescents. Am J Prev Med 2003;25:219-25.
47. Gervais A, ÓLoughlin J, Meshefedjian G, et al. Milestones in the natural course of onset of cigarette use among adolescents. CMAJ 2006;175:255-61.
48. Kandel DB, Hu MC, Griesler PC, et al. On the development of nicotine dependence in adolescence. Drug Alcohol Depend 2007;91:26-39.
49. Caraballo RS, Novak SP, Asman K. Linking quantity and frequency profiles of cigarette smoking to the presence of nicotine dependence symptoms among adolescent smokers: findings from the 2004 National Youth Tobacco Survey. Nicotine Tob Res 2009;11:49-57.
50. DiFranza JR, Savageau JA, Fletcher K, et al. Symptoms of tobacco dependence after brief intermittent use: the Development and Assessment of Nicotine Dependence in Youth-2 study. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2007b;161:704-10.
51. DiFranza JR, Savageau JA, Rigotti NA, et al. Development of symptoms of tobacco dependence in youths: 30 month follow up data from the DANDY study. Tob Control 2002b;11:228-35.
52. Brody AL, Mandelkern MA, London ED, et al. Cigarette smoking saturates brain alpha 4 beta 2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2006;63:907-15.
53. Mansvelder HD, McGehee DS. Long-term potentiation of excitatory inputs to brain reward areas by nicotine. Neuron 2000;27:349-57.
54. Breslau N, Peterson EL. Smoking cessation in young adults: age at initiation of cigarette smoking and other suspected influences. Am J Public Health 1996;86:214-20.
55. Chen J, Millar WJ. Age of smoking initiation: implications for quitting. Health Rep 1998;9:39-46(Eng); 39-48(Fre)
56. Cui Y, Wen W, Moriarty CJ, et al. Risk factors and their effects on the dynamic process of smoking relapse among veteran smokers. Behav Res Ther 2006;44:967-81.
57. Belluzzi JD, Lee AG, Oliff HS, et al. Age-dependent effects of nicotine on locomotor activity and conditioned place preference in rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2004;174:389-95.
58. Brielmaier JM, McDonald CG, Smith RF. Immediate and long-term behavioral effects of a single nicotine injection in adolescent and adult rats. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2007;29:74-80.
59. Kota D, Martin BR, Damaj MI. Age-dependent differences in nicotine reward and withdrawal in female mice. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2008;198:201-10.
60. Kota D, Martin BR, Robinson SE, et al. Nicotine dependence and reward differ between adolescent and adult male mice. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2007;322:399-407.
61. Shram MJ, Funk D, Li Z, et al. Periadolescent and adult rats respond differently in tests measuring the rewarding and aversive effects of nicotine. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2006;186:201-8.
62. Vastola BJ, Douglas LA, Varlinskaya EI, et al. Nicotine-induced conditioned place preference in adolescent and adult rats. Physiol Behav 2002;77:107-14.
63. Adriani W, Macri S, Pacifici R et al. Peculiar vulnerability to nicotine oral self-administration in mice during early adolescence. Neuropsychopharmacology 2002;27:212-24.
64. Chen H, Matta SG, Sharp BM. Acquisition of nicotine self-administration in adolescent rats given prolonged access to the drug. Neuropsychopharmacology 2007;32:700-9.
65. Levin ED, Lawrence SS, Petro A et al. Adolescent vs. adult-onset nicotine self-administration in male rats: duration of effect and differential nicotinic receptor correlates. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2007;29:458-65.
66. Levin ED, Rezvani AH, Montoya D et al. Adolescent-onset nicotine selfadministration modeled in female rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2003;169:141-9.
67. Shram MJ, Funk D, Li Z et al. Nicotine self-administration, extinction responding and reinstatement in adolescent and adult male rats: evidence against a biological vulnerability to nicotine addiction during adolescence. Neuropsychopharmacology 2008b;33:739-48.
68. Shram MJ, Li Z, Le AD. Age differences in the spontaneous acquisition of nicotine self-administration in male Wistar and Long-Evans rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2008c;197:45-58.
69. Shram MJ, Siu EC, Li Z et al. Interactions between age and the aversive effects of nicotine withdrawal under mecamylamine-precipitated and spontaneous conditions in male Wistar rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2008a;198:181-90.
70. Matta SG, Balfour DJ, Benowitz NL et al. Guidelines on nicotine dose selection for in vivo research. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2007;190:269-319.
71. Harvey DM, Yasar S, Heishman SJ et al. Nicotine serves as an effective reinforcer of intravenous drug-taking behavior in human cigarette smokers. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2004;175:134-42.
72. Shoaib M, Schindler CW, Goldberg SR. Nicotine self-administration in rats: strain and nicotine pre-exposure effects on acquisition. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1997;129:35-43.
73. Watkins SS, Epping-Jordan MP, Koob GF et al. Blockade of nicotine selfadministration with nicotinic antagonists in rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1999;62:743-51.
74. Brower VG, Fu Y, Matta SG et al. Rat strain differences in nicotine selfadministration using an unlimited access paradigm. Brain Res 2002;930:12-20.
75. Corrigall WA, Coen KM. Nicotine maintains robust self-administration in rats on a limited-access schedule. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1989;99:473-8.
76. Cox BM, Goldstein A, Nelson WT. Nicotine self-administration in rats. Br J Pharmacol 1984;83:49-55.
77. DeNoble VJ, Mele PC. Intravenous nicotine self-administration in rats: effects of mecamylamine, hexamethonium and naloxone. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2006;184:266-72.
78. Donny EC, Caggiula AR, Knopf S et al. Nicotine self-administration in rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1995;122:390-94.
79. Perkins KA, Fonte C, Sanders M et al. Threshold doses for nicotine discrimination in smokers and nonsmokers. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2001;155:163-70.
80. Perkins KA. Sex differences in nicotine reinforcement and reward: influences on the persistence of tobacco smoking. In: Bevins R, Caggiula AR, eds. The motivational impact of nicotine and its role in tobacco use. New York: Springer-Verlag, 2009:143-69.
81. Perkins KA, Sanders M, D'Amico D et al. Nicotine discrimination and self-administration as a function of smoking status. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1997;131:361-70.
82. Donny EC, Caggiula AR, Rowell PP et al. Nicotine self-administration in rats: estrous cycle effects, sex differences and nicotinic receptor binding. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2000;151:392-405.
83. Lynch WJ. Sex and ovarian hormones influence vulnerability and motivation for nicotine during adolescence in rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2009;94:43-50.
84. Chaudhri N, Caggiula AR, Donny EC et al. Sex differences in the contribution of nicotine and nonpharmacological stimuli to nicotine self-administration in rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2005.
85. Guillem K, Vouillac C, Azar MR et al. Monoamine oxidase inhibition dramatically increases the motivation to self-administer nicotine in rats. J Neurosci 2005;25:8593-600.
86. Dani JA, Harris RA. Nicotine addiction and comorbidity with alcohol abuse and mental illness. Nat Neurosci 2005;8:1465-70.
87. Hughes JR, Rose GL, Callas PW. Nicotine is more inforcing in smokers with a past history of alcoholism than in smokers without this history. Alcohol Clin Exper Res 2000;24:1633-8.
88. Luo Y, Marks MJ, Collins AC. Genotype regulates the development of tolerance to ethanol and cross-tolerance to nicotine. Alcohol 1994;11:167-76.
89. Benowitz NL, Perez-Stable EJ, Herrera B et al. Slower metabolism and reduced intake of nicotine from cigarette smoking in Chinese-Americans. J Natl Cancer Inst 2002;94:108-15.
90. Benowitz NL. Clinical pharmacology of nicotine: implications for understanding, preventing, and treating tobacco addiction. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2008;83:531-41.
91. Sellers EM, Kaplan HL, Tyndale RF. Inhibition of cytochrome P450 2A6 increases nicotine's oral bioavailability and decreases smoking. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2000;68:35-43.
92. Karp I, O'Loughlin J, Hanley J et al. Risk factors for tobacco dependence in adolescent smokers. Tob Control 2006;15:199-204.
93. Audrain-McGovern J, Al Koudsi N, Rodriguez D et al. The role of CYP2A6 in the emergence of nicotine dependence in adolescents. Pediatrics 2007;119:e264-74.
94. Derby KS, Cuthrell K, Caberto C et al. Nicotine metabolism in three ethnic/racial groups with different risks of lung cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2008;17:3526-35.
95. Li MD. The genetics of nicotine dependence. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2006;8:158-64.
96. Perkins KA, Lerman C, Coddington SB et al. Gene and gene by sex associations with initial nicotine sensitivity in nonsmokers. Behav Pharmacol 2008;19:630-40.
97. Ray R, Jepson C, Patterson F et al. Association of OPRM1 Asn40Asp variant with the relative reinforcing value of nicotine in female smokers. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2006;188:355-63.
98. Blendy JA, Strasser A, Walters CL et al. Reduced nicotine reward in obesity: cross comparison in human and mouse. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2005;180:306-15.
99. Perkins KA, Coddington SB, Karelitz JL et al. Variability in initial nicotine sensitivity due to sex, history of other drug use, and parental smoking. Drug Alcohol Depend 2009;99:47-57.
100. Perkins KA, Lerman C, Coddington SB et al. Initial nicotine sensitivity in humans as a function of impulsivity. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2008;200:529-44.
101. Henningfield JE, Keenan R. Nicotine delivery kinetics and abuse liability. J Consult Clin Psychol 1993;61:743-50.
102. Perkins KA, Sayette M, Conklin CA et al. Placebo effects of tobacco smoking and other nicotine intake. Nicotine Tob Res 2003;5:695-709.
103. Perkins KA, Doyle T, Ciccocioppo M et al. Sex differences in the influence of nicotine and dose instructions on subjective and reinforcing effects of smoking. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2006;184:600-7.
104. Rose J, Ananda S, Jarvik ME. Cigarette smoking during anxiety-provoking and monotonous tasks. Addict Behav 1983;8:353-9.
105. Conklin CA, Perkins KA. Subjective and reinforcing effects of smoking during negative mood induction. J Abnorm Psychol 2005;114:153-64.
106. O'Dell LE, Khroyan TV. Rodent models of nicotine reward: What do they tell us about tobacco abuse in humans? Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2009;91:481-8.
107. Schachter S. Pharmacological and psychological determinants of smoking. Ann Intern Med 1978;88:104-14.
108. Perkins KA, Lerman C, Grottenthaler A et al. Dopamine and opioid gene variants are associated with increased smoking reward and reinforcement due to negative mood. Behav Pharmacol 2008;19:641-9.
109. Mitchell SH, de Wit H, Zacny JP. Effects of varying ethanol dose on cigarette consumption in healthy normal volunteers. Behav Pharmacol 1995;6:359-65.
110. Rush CR, Higgins ST, Vansickel AR et al. Methylphenidate increases cigarette smoking. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2005;181:781-9.
111. Roll JM, Higgins ST, Tidey J. Cocaine use can increase cigarette smoking: evidence from laboratory and naturalistic settings. Exper Clin Psychopharmacol 1997;5:263-8.
112. Perkins KA, Fonte C, Grobe JE. Sex differences in the acute effects of cigarette smoking on the reinforcing value of alcohol. Behav Pharmacol 2000;11:63-70.
113. Shoaib M, Swanner LS, Yasar S et al. Chronic caffeine exposure potentiates nicotine self-administration in rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1999;142:327-3.
114. Wooters TE, Neugebauer NM, Rush CR et al. Methylphenidate enhances the abuse-related behavioral effects of nicotine in rats: intravenous self-administration, drug discrimination, and locomotor cross-sensitization. Neuropsychopharmacology 2008;33:1137-48.
115. McQuown SC, Belluzzi JD, Leslie FM. Low dose nicotine treatment during early adolescence increases subsequent cocaine reward. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2007;29:66-73.
116. Henningfield JE, Fant RV, Tomar SL. Smokeless tobacco: an addicting drug. Adv Dent Res 1997;11:330-5.
117. Hatsukami D, Lemmonds C, Tomar SL. Smokeless tobacco use: harm reduction or induction approach? Prev Med 2004;38:309-17.
118. National Cancer Institute. Cigars: health effects and trends. Smoking and tobacco control monograph No. 9. Rockville, MD: National Institutes of Health, 1998.
119. Henningfield JE, Shiffman S, Ferguson SG et al. Tobacco dependence and withdrawal: science base, challenges and opportunities for pharmacotherapy. Pharmacol Ther 2009;123:1-16.
120. World Health Organization Article 9. The World Health Organization Framework Convention on Tobacco Control. http://www.who.int/tobacco/framework/final_text/en/print.html (accessed 2003).
121. National Cancer Institute. Risks associated with smoking cigarettes with low machine-measured yields of tar and nicotine. Smoking and tobacco control monograph No 13. Bethesda, MD: US Department of Health and Human Servie, National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute, 2001.
122. Crellin RA. Project SHIP (Examination of branded and experimental products from the USA). Report no RD.2027-C Restricted, 1985, available from http://legacy. library.ucsf.edu/tid/gue51f00/pdf (accessed 20 Dec 2007).
123. Gordon DL. PM's global strategy: Marlboro product technology, 1992. Available from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/uft21f00 (accessed 23 July 2007).
124. Pankow JF. A consideration of the role of gas/particle partitioning in the deposition of nicotine and other tobacco smoke compounds in the respiratory tract. Chem Res Toxicol 2001;14:1465-81.
125. Pankow JF, Mader BT, Isabelle LM et al. Conversion of nicotine in tobacco smoke to its volatile and available unprotonated form through the action of gaseous ammonia. Environmental Sci Technol 1997;31:2428-33.
126. Ashley DL, Pankow JF, Tavakoli AD et al. Approaches, challenges, and experience in assessing free nicotine. In: Henningfield JE, London ED, Pogun S, eds. Nicotine psychopharmacology handbook of experimental pharmacologoy 192. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, 2009:437-56.
127. Jacob P 3rd, Yu L, Shulgin AT et al. Minor tobacco alkaloids as biomarkers for tobacco use: comparison of users of cigarettes, smokeless tobacco, cigars, and pipes. Am J Public Health 1999;89:731-6.
128. Crooks PA, Li M, Dwoskin LP. Metabolites of nicotine in rat brain after peripheral nicotine administration. Cotinine, nornicotine, and norcotinine. Drug Metab Dispos 1997;25:47-54.
129. Ghosheh O, Dwoskin LP, Li WK et al. Residence times and half-lives of nicotine metabolites in rat brain after acute peripheral administration of [2'-(14)C]nicotine. Drug Metab Dispos 1999;27:1448-55.
130. Ghosheh O, Dwoskin LP, Miller DK et al. Accumulation of nicotine and its metabolites in rat brain after intermittent or continuous peripheral administration of [2'-(14)C]nicotine. Drug Metab Dispos 2001;29:645-51.
131. Dwoskin LP, Buxton ST, Jewell AL et al. S(-)-nornicotine increases dopamine release in a calcium-dependent manner from superfused rat striatal slices. J Neurochem 1993;60:2167-74.
132. Goldberg SR, Risner ME, Stolerman IP et al. Nicotine and some related compounds: effects on schedule-controlled behaviour and discriminative properties in rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1989;97:295-302.
133. Bardo MT, Green TA, Crooks PA et al. Nornicotine is self-administered intravenously by rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1999;146:290-6.
134. Pratt JA, Stolerman IP, Garcha HS et al. Discriminative stimulus properties of nicotine: further evidence for mediation at a cholinergic receptor. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1983;81:54-60.
135. Romano C, Goldstein A, Jewell NP. Characterization of the receptor mediating the nicotine discriminative stimulus. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1981;74:310-15.
136. Brioni JD, Kim DJ, O'Neill AB et al. Clozapine attenuates the discriminative stimulus properties of (-)-nicotine. Brain Res 1994;643:1-9.
137. Clemens KJ, Caille S, Stinus L et al. The addition of five minor tobacco alkaloids increases nicotine-induced hyperactivity, sensitization and intravenous self-administration in rats. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2009:1-12.
138. Foddai M, Dosia G, Spiga S et al. Acetaldehyde increases dopaminergic neuronal activity in the VTA. Neuropsychopharmacology 2004;29:530-6.
139. Cao J, Belluzzi JD, Loughlin SE et al. Acetaldehyde, a major constituent of tobacco smoke, enhances behavioral, endocrine, and neuronal responses to nicotine in adolescent and adult rats. Neuropsychopharmacology 2007;32:2025-35.
140. Myers WD, Ng KT, Singer G. Intravenous self-administration of acetaldehyde in the rat as a function of schedule, food deprivation and photoperiod. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1982;17:807-11.
141. Amit Z, Smith BR. A multi-dimensional examination of the positive reinforcing properties of acetaldehyde. Alcohol 1985;2:367-70.
142. Takayama S, Uyeno ET. Intravenous self-administration of ethanol and acetaldehyde by rats. Yakubutsu Seishin Kodo 1985;5:329-34.
143. Talhout R, Opperhuizen A, van Amsterdam JG. Role of acetaldehyde in tobacco smoke addiction. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2007;17:627-36.
144. Khalil AA, Steyn S, Castagnoli N Jr. Isolation and characterization of a monoamine oxidase inhibitor from tobacco leaves. Chem Res Toxicol 2000;13:31-5.
145. Fowler JS, Logan J, Wang GJ et al. Monoamine oxidase and cigarette smoking. Neurotoxicology 2003;24:75-82.
146. Villegier AS, Lotfipour S, McQuown SC et al. Tranylcypromine enhancement of nicotine self-administration. Neuropharmacology 2007;52:1415-25.
147. Villegier AS, Blanc G, Glowinski J et al. Transient behavioral sensitization to nicotine becomes long-lasting with monoamine oxidases inhibitors. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2003;76:267-74.
148. Wooters TE, Bardo MT. The monoamine oxidase inhibitor phenelzine enhances the discriminative stimulus effect of nicotine in rats. Behav Pharmacol 2007;18:601-8.
149. Guillem K, Vouillac C, Azar MR et al. Monoamine oxidase A rather than monoamine oxidase B inhibition increases nicotine reinforcement in rats. Eur J Neurosci 2006;24:3532-40.
150. Wayne GF, Connolly GN, Henningfield JE. Assessing internal tobacco industry knowledge of the neurobiology of tobacco dependence. Nicotine Tob Res 2004;6:927-40.
151. World Health Organization. The scientific basis of tobacco product regulation: report of a who study group. WHO technical report series 945. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO, 2007.
152. Royal College of Physicians. Harm reduction in nicotine addiction. Helping people who can't quit. In: A report by the Tobacco Advisory Group of the Royal College of Physicians, ed. London: Royal College of Physicians, 2007.
153. Henningfield JE, Benowitz NL, Ahijevych K et al. Does menthol enhance the addictiveness of cigarettes? An agenda for research. Nicotine Tob Res 2003;5:9-11.
154. Gray N, Henningfield JE, Benowitz NL et al. Toward a comprehensive long term nicotine policy. Tob Control 2005;14:161-5.
155. Connolly GN. The marketing of nicotine addiction by one oral snuff manufacturer. Tob Control 1995;4:73-9.
156. Shatenstein S. Eliminating nicotine in cigarettes. Tob Control 1999;8:106; author reply 107-9.