Epidemiology and Management of Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Infectious Disease Clinics of North America

Volumn 24, Issue 4, 2010, Pages 899-919

  Yang, Ju Dong ^a   Roberts, Lewis R ^a  

^a MAYO CLINIC   (United States)

Author keywords

Hepatitis B; Hepatitis C; Liver transplantation; Pathogenesis; Radiofrequency ablation; Transarterial chemoembolization

Indexed keywords

ALPHA FETOPROTEIN; HEPATITIS VACCINE; INTERFERON; LAMIVUDINE; PLACEBO; SORAFENIB; YTTRIUM 90;

CANCER PREVENTION; CANCER RISK; CANCER STAGING; CAUSAL ATTRIBUTION; CHEMOEMBOLIZATION; CHRONIC HEPATITIS; CLINICAL FEATURE; CLINICAL TRIAL; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; DECOMPENSATED LIVER CIRRHOSIS; DIAGNOSTIC TEST; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG RESPONSE; HEPATITIS B; HEPATITIS C; HUMAN; INFECTION PREVENTION; INTERMETHOD COMPARISON; LIVER BIOPSY; LIVER CARCINOGENESIS; LIVER CELL CARCINOMA; LIVER CIRRHOSIS; LIVER SURGERY; LIVER TRANSPLANTATION; PATIENT ASSESSMENT; RADIOFREQUENCY ABLATION; REVIEW; RISK REDUCTION; TREATMENT OUTCOME; TUMOR ABLATION;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; CARCINOMA, HEPATOCELLULAR; CHILD; FEMALE; HEPATITIS B, CHRONIC; HEPATITIS C, CHRONIC; HUMANS; INCIDENCE; LIVER CIRRHOSIS; LIVER NEOPLASMS; MALE; MIDDLE AGED; RISK FACTORS; YOUNG ADULT;

EID: 77957734999     PISSN: 08915520     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.idc.2010.07.004     Document Type: Review

References (126)

1. Yang J.D., Roberts L.R. Hepatocellular carcinoma: a global view. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2010, 7(8):448-458.
2. Parkin D.M., Bray F., Ferlay J., et al. Global cancer statistics, 2002. CA Cancer J Clin 2005, 55(2):74-108.
3. Bosch F.X., Ribes J., Diaz M., et al. Primary liver cancer: worldwide incidence and trends. Gastroenterology 2004, 127(5 Suppl 1):S5-S16.
4. Altekruse S.F., McGlynn K.A., Reichman M.E. Hepatocellular carcinoma incidence, mortality, and survival trends in the United States from 1975 to 2005. J Clin Oncol 2009, 27(9):1485-1491.
5. Armstrong G.L., Alter M.J., McQuillan G.M., et al. The past incidence of hepatitis C virus infection: implications for the future burden of chronic liver disease in the United States. Hepatology 2000, 31(3):777-782.
6. Ma W.L., Hsu C.L., Wu M.H., et al. Androgen receptor is a new potential therapeutic target for the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma. Gastroenterology 2008, 135(3):947-955. 955, e941-5.
7. Naugler W.E., Sakurai T., Kim S., et al. Gender disparity in liver cancer due to sex differences in MyD88-dependent IL-6 production. Science 2007, 317(5834):121-124.
8. Yu M.W., Chen C.J. Elevated serum testosterone levels and risk of hepatocellular carcinoma. Cancer Res 1993, 53(4):790-794.
9. El-Serag H.B., Rudolph K.L. Hepatocellular carcinoma: epidemiology and molecular carcinogenesis. Gastroenterology 2007, 132(7):2557-2576.
10. Beasley R.P. Hepatitis B virus. The major etiology of hepatocellular carcinoma. Cancer 1988, 61(10):1942-1956.
11. Sherman M., Peltekian K.M., Lee C. Screening for hepatocellular carcinoma in chronic carriers of hepatitis B virus: incidence and prevalence of hepatocellular carcinoma in a North American urban population. Hepatology 1995, 22(2):432-438.
12. Villeneuve J.P., Desrochers M., Infante-Rivard C., et al. A long-term follow-up study of asymptomatic hepatitis B surface antigen-positive carriers in Montreal. Gastroenterology 1994, 106(4):1000-1005.
13. Chen C.J., Liang K.Y., Chang A.S., et al. Effects of hepatitis B virus, alcohol drinking, cigarette smoking and familial tendency on hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatology 1991, 13(3):398-406.
14. Lu S.N., Lin T.M., Chen C.J., et al. A case-control study of primary hepatocellular carcinoma in Taiwan. Cancer 1988, 62(9):2051-2055.
15. Yang H.I., Lu S.N., Liaw Y.F., et al. Hepatitis B e antigen and the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma. N Engl J Med 2002, 347(3):168-174.
16. Chen C.J., Yang H.I., Su J., et al. Risk of hepatocellular carcinoma across a biological gradient of serum hepatitis B virus DNA level. JAMA 2006, 295(1):65-73.
17. Liang T.J., Jeffers L.J., Reddy K.R., et al. Viral pathogenesis of hepatocellular carcinoma in the United States. Hepatology 1993, 18(6):1326-1333.
18. Chisari F.V. Rous-Whipple Award Lecture. Viruses, immunity, and cancer: lessons from hepatitis B. Am J Pathol 2000, 156(4):1117-1132.
19. Dandri M., Burda M.R., Burkle A., et al. Increase in de novo HBV DNA integrations in response to oxidative DNA damage or inhibition of poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation. Hepatology 2002, 35(1):217-223.
20. Bonilla Guerrero R., Roberts L.R. The role of hepatitis B virus integrations in the pathogenesis of human hepatocellular carcinoma. J Hepatol 2005, 42(5):760-777.
21. Ferber M.J., Montoya D.P., Yu C., et al. Integrations of the hepatitis B virus (HBV) and human papillomavirus (HPV) into the human telomerase reverse transcriptase (hTERT) gene in liver and cervical cancers. Oncogene 2003, 22(24):3813-3820.
22. Horikawa I., Barrett J.C. cis-Activation of the human telomerase gene (hTERT) by the hepatitis B virus genome. J Natl Cancer Inst 2001, 93(15):1171-1173.
23. Paterlini-Brechot P., Saigo K., Murakami Y., et al. Hepatitis B virus-related insertional mutagenesis occurs frequently in human liver cancers and recurrently targets human telomerase gene. Oncogene 2003, 22(25):3911-3916.
24. Yen T.S. Hepadnaviral X protein: review of recent progress. J Biomed Sci 1996, 3(1):20-30.
25. Bouchard M.J., Wang L.H., Schneider R.J. Calcium signaling by HBx protein in hepatitis B virus DNA replication. Science 2001, 294(5550):2376-2378.
26. Chami M., Ferrari D., Nicotera P., et al. Caspase-dependent alterations of Ca2+ signaling in the induction of apoptosis by hepatitis B virus X protein. J Biol Chem 2003, 278(34):31745-31755.
27. Rahmani Z., Huh K.W., Lasher R., et al. Hepatitis B virus X protein colocalizes to mitochondria with a human voltage-dependent anion channel, HVDAC3, and alters its transmembrane potential. J Virol 2000, 74(6):2840-2846.
28. Branda M., Wands J.R. Signal transduction cascades and hepatitis B and C related hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatology 2006, 43(5):891-902.
29. Brechot C. Pathogenesis of hepatitis B virus-related hepatocellular carcinoma: old and new paradigms. Gastroenterology 2004, 127(5 Suppl 1):S56-S61.
30. Alter M.J., Kruszon-Moran D., Nainan O.V., et al. The prevalence of hepatitis C virus infection in the United States, 1988 through 1994. N Engl J Med 1999, 341(8):556-562.
31. Kiyosawa K., Tanaka E. Characteristics of hepatocellular carcinoma in Japan. Oncology 2002, 62(Suppl 1):5-7.
32. Donahue J.G., Munoz A., Ness P.M., et al. The declining risk of post-transfusion hepatitis C virus infection. N Engl J Med 1992, 327(6):369-373.
33. Schreiber G.B., Busch M.P., Kleinman S.H., et al. The risk of transfusion-transmitted viral infections. The Retrovirus Epidemiology Donor Study. N Engl J Med 1996, 334(26):1685-1690.
34. Lam J.P., McOmish F., Burns S.M., et al. Infrequent vertical transmission of hepatitis C virus. J Infect Dis 1993, 167(3):572-576.
35. Ohto H., Terazawa S., Sasaki N., et al. Transmission of hepatitis C virus from mothers to infants. The Vertical Transmission of Hepatitis C Virus Collaborative Study Group. N Engl J Med 1994, 330(11):744-750.
36. Sun C.A., Wu D.M., Lin C.C., et al. Incidence and cofactors of hepatitis C virus-related hepatocellular carcinoma: a prospective study of 12,008 men in Taiwan. Am J Epidemiol 2003, 157(8):674-682.
37. Hassan M.M., Hwang L.Y., Hatten C.J., et al. Risk factors for hepatocellular carcinoma: synergism of alcohol with viral hepatitis and diabetes mellitus. Hepatology 2002, 36(5):1206-1213.
38. Ikeda K., Marusawa H., Osaki Y., et al. Antibody to hepatitis B core antigen and risk for hepatitis C-related hepatocellular carcinoma: a prospective study. Ann Intern Med 2007, 146(9):649-656.
39. Ohki T., Tateishi R., Sato T., et al. Obesity is an independent risk factor for hepatocellular carcinoma development in chronic hepatitis C patients. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2008, 6(4):459-464.
40. Lok A.S., Seeff L.B., Morgan T.R., et al. Incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma and associated risk factors in hepatitis C-related advanced liver disease. Gastroenterology 2009, 136(1):138-148.
41. Chen C.L., Yang H.I., Yang W.S., et al. Metabolic factors and risk of hepatocellular carcinoma by chronic hepatitis B/C infection: a follow-up study in Taiwan. Gastroenterology 2008, 135(1):111-121.
42. Pawlotsky J.M. Genetic heterogeneity and properties of hepatitis C virus. Acta Gastroenterol Belg 1998, 61(2):189-191.
43. Lai M.M., Ware C.F. Hepatitis C virus core protein: possible roles in viral pathogenesis. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2000, 242:117-134.
44. Park J.S., Yang J.M., Min M.K. Hepatitis C virus nonstructural protein NS4B transforms NIH3T3 cells in cooperation with the Ha-ras oncogene. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2000, 267(2):581-587.
45. Sakamuro D., Furukawa T., Takegami T. Hepatitis C virus nonstructural protein NS3 transforms NIH 3T3 cells. J Virol 1995, 69(6):3893-3896.
46. Colombo M., de Franchis R., Del Ninno E., et al. Hepatocellular carcinoma in Italian patients with cirrhosis. N Engl J Med 1991, 325(10):675-680.
47. Tsukuma H., Hiyama T., Tanaka S., et al. Risk factors for hepatocellular carcinoma among patients with chronic liver disease. N Engl J Med 1993, 328(25):1797-1801.
48. Donato F., Tagger A., Gelatti U., et al. Alcohol and hepatocellular carcinoma: the effect of lifetime intake and hepatitis virus infections in men and women. Am J Epidemiol 2002, 155(4):323-331.
49. Caballeria L., Pares A., Castells A., et al. Hepatocellular carcinoma in primary biliary cirrhosis: similar incidence to that in hepatitis C virus-related cirrhosis. Am J Gastroenterol 2001, 96(4):1160-1163.
50. Elmberg M., Hultcrantz R., Ekbom A., et al. Cancer risk in patients with hereditary hemochromatosis and in their first-degree relatives. Gastroenterology 2003, 125(6):1733-1741.
51. Reddy A., Dash C., Leerapun A., et al. Hypothyroidism: a possible risk factor for liver cancer in patients with no known underlying cause of liver disease. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2007, 5(1):118-123.
52. Hassan M.M., Kaseb A., Li D., et al. Association between hypothyroidism and hepatocellular carcinoma: a case-control study in the United States. Hepatology 2009, 49(5):1563-1570.
53. Larsson S.C., Wolk A. Coffee consumption and risk of liver cancer: a meta-analysis. Gastroenterology 2007, 132(5):1740-1745.
54. El-Serag H.B., Johnson M.L., Hachem C., et al. Statins are associated with a reduced risk of hepatocellular carcinoma in a large cohort of patients with diabetes. Gastroenterology 2009, 136(5):1601-1608.
55. Ni Y.H., Chang M.H., Huang L.M., et al. Hepatitis B virus infection in children and adolescents in a hyperendemic area: 15 years after mass hepatitis B vaccination. Ann Intern Med 2001, 135(9):796-800.
56. Chang M.H., Chen C.J., Lai M.S., et al. Universal hepatitis B vaccination in Taiwan and the incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma in children. N Engl J Med 1997, 336(26):1855-1859.
57. Chang M.H., You S.L., Chen C.J., et al. Decreased incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma in hepatitis B vaccinees: a 20-year follow-up study. J Natl Cancer Inst 2009, 101(19):1348-1355.
58. Lin S.M., Sheen I.S., Chien R.N., et al. Long-term beneficial effect of interferon therapy in patients with chronic hepatitis B virus infection. Hepatology 1999, 29(3):971-975.
59. Papatheodoridis G.V., Manesis E., Hadziyannis S.J. The long-term outcome of interferon-alpha treated and untreated patients with HBeAg-negative chronic hepatitis B. J Hepatol 2001, 34(2):306-313.
60. van Zonneveld M., Honkoop P., Hansen B.E., et al. Long-term follow-up of alpha-interferon treatment of patients with chronic hepatitis B. Hepatology 2004, 39(3):804-810.
61. Liaw Y.F., Sung J.J., Chow W.C., et al. Lamivudine for patients with chronic hepatitis B and advanced liver disease. N Engl J Med 2004, 351(15):1521-1531.
62. Matsumoto A., Tanaka E., Rokuhara A., et al. Efficacy of lamivudine for preventing hepatocellular carcinoma in chronic hepatitis B: a multicenter retrospective study of 2795 patients. Hepatol Res 2005, 32(3):173-184.
63. Yuen M.F., Seto W.K., Chow D.H., et al. Long-term lamivudine therapy reduces the risk of long-term complications of chronic hepatitis B infection even in patients without advanced disease. Antivir Ther 2007, 12(8):1295-1303.
64. Nishiguchi S., Shiomi S., Nakatani S., et al. Prevention of hepatocellular carcinoma in patients with chronic active hepatitis C and cirrhosis. Lancet 2001, 357(9251):196-197.
65. Camma C., Giunta M., Andreone P., et al. Interferon and prevention of hepatocellular carcinoma in viral cirrhosis: an evidence-based approach. J Hepatol 2001, 34(4):593-602.
66. Papatheodoridis G.V., Papadimitropoulos V.C., Hadziyannis S.J. Effect of interferon therapy on the development of hepatocellular carcinoma in patients with hepatitis C virus-related cirrhosis: a meta-analysis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2001, 15(5):689-698.
67. Bernardinello E., Cavalletto L., Chemello L., et al. Long-term clinical outcome after beta-interferon therapy in cirrhotic patients with chronic hepatitis C. TVVH Study Group. Hepatogastroenterology 1999, 46(30):3216-3222.
68. Valla D.C., Chevallier M., Marcellin P., et al. Treatment of hepatitis C virus-related cirrhosis: a randomized, controlled trial of interferon alfa-2b versus no treatment. Hepatology 1999, 29(6):1870-1875.
69. Yoshida H., Shiratori Y., Moriyama M., et al. Interferon therapy reduces the risk for hepatocellular carcinoma: national surveillance program of cirrhotic and noncirrhotic patients with chronic hepatitis C in Japan. IHIT Study Group. Inhibition of Hepatocarcinogenesis by Interferon Therapy. Ann Intern Med 1999, 131(3):174-181.
70. Di Bisceglie A.M., Shiffman M.L., Everson G.T., et al. Prolonged therapy of advanced chronic hepatitis C with low-dose peginterferon. N Engl J Med 2008, 359(23):2429-2441.
71. Zhang B.H., Yang B.H., Tang Z.Y. Randomized controlled trial of screening for hepatocellular carcinoma. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 2004, 130(7):417-422.
72. Bolondi L., Sofia S., Siringo S., et al. Surveillance programme of cirrhotic patients for early diagnosis and treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma: a cost effectiveness analysis. Gut 2001, 48(2):251-259.
73. Trevisani F., De N.S., Rapaccini G., et al. Semiannual and annual surveillance of cirrhotic patients for hepatocellular carcinoma: effects on cancer stage and patient survival (Italian experience). Am J Gastroenterol 2002, 97(3):734-744.
74. Saab S., Ly D., Nieto J., et al. Hepatocellular carcinoma screening in patients waiting for liver transplantation: a decision analytic model. Liver Transpl 2003, 9(7):672-681.
75. Trevisani F., D'Intino P.E., Morselli-Labate A.M., et al. Serum alpha-fetoprotein for diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma in patients with chronic liver disease: influence of HBsAg and anti-HCV status. J Hepatol 2001, 34(4):570-575.
76. Marrero J.A., Feng Z., Wang Y., et al. Alpha-fetoprotein, des-gamma carboxyprothrombin, and lectin-bound alpha-fetoprotein in early hepatocellular carcinoma. Gastroenterology 2009, 137(1):110-118.
77. Burrel M., Llovet J.M., Ayuso C., et al. MRI angiography is superior to helical CT for detection of HCC prior to liver transplantation: an explant correlation. Hepatology 2003, 38(4):1034-1042.
78. Bruix J., Sherman M. Management of hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatology 2005, 42(5):1208-1236.
79. Durand F., Regimbeau J.M., Belghiti J., et al. Assessment of the benefits and risks of percutaneous biopsy before surgical resection of hepatocellular carcinoma. J Hepatol 2001, 35(2):254-258.
80. Huang G.T., Sheu J.C., Yang P.M., et al. Ultrasound-guided cutting biopsy for the diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma-a study based on 420 patients. J Hepatol 1996, 25(3):334-338.
81. Silva M.A., Hegab B., Hyde C., et al. Needle track seeding following biopsy of liver lesions in the diagnosis of hepatocellular cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Gut 2008, 57(11):1592-1596.
82. Vauthey J.N., Ribero D., Abdalla E.K., et al. Outcomes of liver transplantation in 490 patients with hepatocellular carcinoma: validation of a uniform staging after surgical treatment. J Am Coll Surg 2007, 204(5):1016-1027. [discussion: 1027-8].
83. Prospective validation of the CLIP score: a new prognostic system for patients with cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. The Cancer of the Liver Italian Program (CLIP) Investigators. Hepatology 2000, 31(4):840-845.
84. Ueno S., Tanabe G., Sako K., et al. Discrimination value of the new western prognostic system (CLIP score) for hepatocellular carcinoma in 662 Japanese patients. Cancer of the Liver Italian Program. Hepatology 2001, 34(3):529-534.
85. Marrero J.A., Fontana R.J., Barrat A., et al. Prognosis of hepatocellular carcinoma: comparison of 7 staging systems in an American cohort. Hepatology 2005, 41(4):707-716.
86. Llovet J.M., Bru C., Bruix J. Prognosis of hepatocellular carcinoma: the BCLC staging classification. Semin Liver Dis 1999, 19(3):329-338.
87. Bruix J., Castells A., Bosch J., et al. Surgical resection of hepatocellular carcinoma in cirrhotic patients: prognostic value of preoperative portal pressure. Gastroenterology 1996, 111(4):1018-1022.
88. Llovet J.M., Fuster J., Bruix J. Intention-to-treat analysis of surgical treatment for early hepatocellular carcinoma: resection versus transplantation. Hepatology 1999, 30(6):1434-1440.
89. Teh S.H., Christein J., Donohue J., et al. Hepatic resection of hepatocellular carcinoma in patients with cirrhosis: Model of End-Stage Liver Disease (MELD) score predicts perioperative mortality. J Gastrointest Surg 2005, 9(9):1207-1215. [discussion: 1215].
90. Ikai I., Arii S., Kojiro M., et al. Reevaluation of prognostic factors for survival after liver resection in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma in a Japanese nationwide survey. Cancer 2004, 101(4):796-802.
91. Imamura H., Matsuyama Y., Tanaka E., et al. Risk factors contributing to early and late phase intrahepatic recurrence of hepatocellular carcinoma after hepatectomy. J Hepatol 2003, 38(2):200-207.
92. Okada S., Shimada K., Yamamoto J., et al. Predictive factors for postoperative recurrence of hepatocellular carcinoma. Gastroenterology 1994, 106(6):1618-1624.
93. Shi M., Guo R.P., Lin X.J., et al. Partial hepatectomy with wide versus narrow resection margin for solitary hepatocellular carcinoma: a prospective randomized trial. Ann Surg 2007, 245(1):36-43.
94. Penn I. Hepatic transplantation for primary and metastatic cancers of the liver. Surgery 1991, 110(4):726-734. [discussion: 734-5].
95. Ringe B., Pichlmayr R., Wittekind C., et al. Surgical treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma: experience with liver resection and transplantation in 198 patients. World J Surg 1991, 15(2):270-285.
96. Mazzaferro V., Regalia E., Doci R., et al. Liver transplantation for the treatment of small hepatocellular carcinomas in patients with cirrhosis. N Engl J Med 1996, 334(11):693-699.
97. Yao F.Y., Ferrell L., Bass N.M., et al. Liver transplantation for hepatocellular carcinoma: expansion of the tumor size limits does not adversely impact survival. Hepatology 2001, 33(6):1394-1403.
98. Chapman W.C., Majella Doyle M.B., Stuart J.E., et al. Outcomes of neoadjuvant transarterial chemoembolization to downstage hepatocellular carcinoma before liver transplantation. Ann Surg 2008, 248(4):617-625.
99. Yao F.Y., Hirose R., LaBerge J.M., et al. A prospective study on downstaging of hepatocellular carcinoma prior to liver transplantation. Liver Transpl 2005, 11(12):1505-1514.
100. Yao F.Y., Kerlan R.K., Hirose R., et al. Excellent outcome following down-staging of hepatocellular carcinoma prior to liver transplantation: an intention-to-treat analysis. Hepatology 2008, 48(3):819-827.
101. Trotter J.F., Wachs M., Everson G.T., et al. Adult-to-adult transplantation of the right hepatic lobe from a living donor. N Engl J Med 2002, 346(14):1074-1082.
102. Yao F.Y., Bass N.M., Nikolai B., et al. Liver transplantation for hepatocellular carcinoma: analysis of survival according to the intention-to-treat principle and dropout from the waiting list. Liver Transpl 2002, 8(10):873-883.
103. Ishii H., Okada S., Nose H., et al. Local recurrence of hepatocellular carcinoma after percutaneous ethanol injection. Cancer 1996, 77(9):1792-1796.
104. Livraghi T., Bolondi L., Lazzaroni S., et al. Percutaneous ethanol injection in the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma in cirrhosis. A study on 207 patients. Cancer 1992, 69(4):925-929.
105. Vilana R., Bruix J., Bru C., et al. Tumor size determines the efficacy of percutaneous ethanol injection for the treatment of small hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatology 1992, 16(2):353-357.
106. Lencioni R.A., Allgaier H.P., Cioni D., et al. Small hepatocellular carcinoma in cirrhosis: randomized comparison of radio-frequency thermal ablation versus percutaneous ethanol injection. Radiology 2003, 228(1):235-240.
107. Lin S.M., Lin C.J., Lin C.C., et al. Radiofrequency ablation improves prognosis compared with ethanol injection for hepatocellular carcinoma < or =4 cm. Gastroenterology 2004, 127(6):1714-1723.
108. Chen M.S., Li J.Q., Zheng Y., et al. A prospective randomized trial comparing percutaneous local ablative therapy and partial hepatectomy for small hepatocellular carcinoma. Ann Surg 2006, 243(3):321-328.
109. Livraghi T., Meloni F., Di Stasi M., et al. Sustained complete response and complications rates after radiofrequency ablation of very early hepatocellular carcinoma in cirrhosis: Is resection still the treatment of choice?. Hepatology 2008, 47(1):82-89.
110. Lau W.Y., Lai E.C. The current role of radiofrequency ablation in the management of hepatocellular carcinoma: a systematic review. Ann Surg 2009, 249(1):20-25.
111. Chan A.O., Yuen M.F., Hui C.K., et al. A prospective study regarding the complications of transcatheter intraarterial lipiodol chemoembolization in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma. Cancer 2002, 94(6):1747-1752.
112. Llovet J.M., Real M.I., Montana X., et al. Arterial embolisation or chemoembolisation versus symptomatic treatment in patients with unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2002, 359(9319):1734-1739.
113. Lo C.M., Ngan H., Tso W.K., et al. Randomized controlled trial of transarterial lipiodol chemoembolization for unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatology 2002, 35(5):1164-1171.
114. Takayasu K., Arii S., Ikai I., et al. Prospective cohort study of transarterial chemoembolization for unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma in 8510 patients. Gastroenterology 2006, 131(2):461-469.
115. Alba E., Valls C., Dominguez J., et al. Transcatheter arterial chemoembolization in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma on the waiting list for orthotopic liver transplantation. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2008, 190(5):1341-1348.
116. Takaki H., Yamakado K., Nakatsuka A., et al. Radiofrequency ablation combined with chemoembolization for the treatment of hepatocellular carcinomas 5 cm or smaller: risk factors for local tumor progression. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2007, 18(7):856-861.
117. Yamakado K., Nakatsuka A., Ohmori S., et al. Radiofrequency ablation combined with chemoembolization in hepatocellular carcinoma: treatment response based on tumor size and morphology. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2002, 13(12):1225-1232.
118. Shibata T., Isoda H., Hirokawa Y., et al. Small hepatocellular carcinoma: is radiofrequency ablation combined with transcatheter arterial chemoembolization more effective than radiofrequency ablation alone for treatment?. Radiology 2009, 252(3):905-913.
119. Castrucci M., Sironi S., De Cobelli F., et al. Plain and gadolinium-DTPA-enhanced MR imaging of hepatocellular carcinoma treated with transarterial chemoembolization. Abdom Imaging 1996, 21(6):488-494.
120. Forner A., Ayuso C., Varela M., et al. Evaluation of tumor response after locoregional therapies in hepatocellular carcinoma: are response evaluation criteria in solid tumors reliable?. Cancer 2009, 115(3):616-623.
121. Tezuka M., Hayashi K., Okada Y., et al. Therapeutic results of computed-tomography-guided transcatheter arterial chemoembolization for local recurrence of hepatocellular carcinoma after initial transcatheter arterial chemoembolization: the results of 85 recurrent tumors in 35 patients. Dig Dis Sci 2009, 54(3):661-669.
122. Geschwind J.F., Salem R., Carr B.I., et al. Yttrium-90 microspheres for the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma. Gastroenterology 2004, 127(5 Suppl 1):S194-S205.
123. Sangro B., Bilbao J.I., Boan J., et al. Radioembolization using 90Y-resin microspheres for patients with advanced hepatocellular carcinoma. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2006, 66(3):792-800.
124. Vente M.A., Wondergem M., van der Tweel I., et al. Yttrium-90 microsphere radioembolization for the treatment of liver malignancies: a structured meta-analysis. Eur Radiol 2009, 19(4):951-959.
125. Roberts L.R., Gores G.J. Hepatocellular carcinoma: molecular pathways and new therapeutic targets. Semin Liver Dis 2005, 25(2):212-225.
126. Llovet J.M., Ricci S., Mazzaferro V., et al. Sorafenib in advanced hepatocellular carcinoma. N Engl J Med 2008, 359(4):378-390.