A clinical perspective of spinal cord injury

NeuroRehabilitation

Volumn 27, Issue 2, 2010, Pages 129-139

  Tewarie, Rishi D S Nandoe ^a,b   Hurtado, Andres ^b   Bartels, Ronald H M A ^a   Grotenhuis, J André ^a   Oudega, Martin ^c  

^a RADBOUD UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER   (Netherlands)

^b KENNEDY KRIEGER INSTITUTE   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

clinical care; clinical trials; Contusion; neuroprotection; secondary injury

Indexed keywords

4 AMINOPYRIDINE; ANTIBODY; BA 210 ANTIBODY; INFLUENZA VACCINE; METHYLPREDNISOLONE SODIUM SUCCINATE; MINOCYCLINE; NOGO ANTIBODY; PNEUMOCOCCUS VACCINE; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG;

CLINICAL ASSESSMENT; CLINICAL TRIAL; DECUBITUS; DETERIORATION; DRUG MEGADOSE; FUNCTIONAL ASSESSMENT; FUNCTIONAL ELECTRICAL STIMULATION; HUMAN; INFECTION; INFLAMMATION; MEDICAL CARE; MYOPATHY; NEUROPROTECTION; OPPORTUNISTIC INFECTION; PAIN; REVIEW; SPINAL CORD INJURY; STEM CELL TRANSPLANTATION; WOUND INFECTION;

ANIMALS; AXONS; ELECTRIC STIMULATION THERAPY; HUMANS; RECOVERY OF FUNCTION; SPINAL CORD; SPINAL CORD INJURIES; SPINAL CORD REGENERATION; STEM CELL TRANSPLANTATION; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

EID: 77957266793     PISSN: 10538135     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3233/NRE-2010-0589     Document Type: Review

References (109)

1. A.Ackery, C. Tator andA.Krassioukov, Aglobal perspective on spinal cord injury epidemiology, Journal of Neurotrauma 21 (2004), 1355-1370. (Pubitemid 39435313)
2. American Spinal Injury Association. International Standards for Neurological Classifications of Spinal Cord Injury, American Spinal Injury Association (2000), 1-23.
3. D.C. Baptiste, A.T. Hartwick, C.A. Jollimore, W.H. Baldridge, G.M. Seigel and M.E. Kelly, An investigation of the neuroprotective effects of tetracycline derivatives in experimental models of retinal cell death, Molecular Pharmacology 66 (2004), 1113-1122.
4. D.C. Baptiste, K.J. Powell, C.A. Jollimore, C. Hamilton, T.L. LeVatte, M.L. Archibald, B.C. Chauha, G.S. Robertson and M.E. Kelly, Effects of minocycline and tetracycline on retinal ganglion cell survival after axotomy, Neuroscience 134 (2005), 575-582. (Pubitemid 41111785)
5. D.C. Baptiste and M.G. Fehlings, Pharmacological approaches to repair the injured spinal cord, Journal of Neurotrauma 23 (2006), 318-334. (Pubitemid 43726313)
6. D.C. Baptiste and M.G. Fehlings, Update on the treatment of spinal cord injury, Progress in Brain Research 161 (2007), 217-233. (Pubitemid 46818029)
7. Y. Berrocal, D.D. Pearse, A. Singh, C.M.Andrade, J.S.McBroom, R. Puentes and M.J. Eaton, Social and environmental enrichment improves sensory and motor recovery after severe contusive spinal cord injury in the rat, Journal of Neurotrauma 24 (2007), 1761-1772. (Pubitemid 351267790)
8. A.R. Blight, Macrophages and inflammatory damage in spinal cord injury, Journal of Neurotrauma 9 (1992), S83-S91.
9. A.R. Blight, Miracles and moleculesprogress in spinal cord repair, Nature Neuroscience 5 (2002), S1051-S1054.
10. J.R. Boekamp, J.C. Overholser and D.S. Schubert, Depression following a spinal cord injury, International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine 26 (1996), 329-349. (Pubitemid 27009354)
11. U. Botel, E.Gläser and A. Niedeggen, The surgical treatment of acute spinal paralyzed patients, Spinal Cord 35 (1997), 420-428. (Pubitemid 27316461)
12. M.B. Bracken, M.J. Shepard, W.F. Collins, T.R. Holford, W. Young, D.S. Baskin, H.M. Eisenberg, E. Flamm, L. LeoSummers, J. Maroon, L.F. Marshall, P.L. Perot, Jr., J. Piepmeier, V.K.H. Sonntag, F.C. Wagner, J.E. Wilberger and H.R.Winn and A randomized, controlled trial ofmethylprednisolone or naloxone in the treatment of acute spinalcord injury. Results of the Second National Acute Spinal Cord Injury Study, New England Journal of Medicine 322 (1990), 1405-1411. (Pubitemid 20152525)
13. M.B. Bracken,M.J. Shepard, T.R.Holford, L. LeoSummers, E.F. Aldrich, M. Fazl, M. Fehlings, D.L. Herr, P.W. Hitchon, L.F. Marshall, R.P. Nockels, V. Pascale, P.L. Perot, Jr., J. Piepmeier, V.K. Sonntag, F. Wagner, J.E. Wilberger, H.R. Winn and W. Young, Administration of methylprednisolone for 24 or 48 hours or tirilazad mesylate for 48 hours in the treatment of acute spinal cord injury. Results of the Third National Acute Spinal Cord Injury Randomized Controlled Trial. National Acute Spinal Cord Injury Study, ournal of the American Medical Association 277 (1997), 1597-1604. (Pubitemid 27231191)
14. M.B. Bracken, Steroids for acute spinal cord injury, Cochrane Database of Systematic Review 3 (2002), CD001046.
15. J.S. Brodkey, C.F. Miller, Jr. and R.M. Harmody, The syndrome of acute central cervical spinal cord injury revisited, Surgical Neurology 14 1980), 251-257. (Pubitemid 10025537)
16. M.BrusRamer, J.B.Carmel, S.Chakrabarty and J.H.Martin, Electrical stimulation of spared corticospinal axons augments connections with ipsilateral spinal motor circuits after injury, Journal of Neuroscience 27 (2007), 13793-13801. (Pubitemid 350278261)
17. R.P. Bunge,W.R. Puckett, J.L. Becerra, A.Marcillo andR.M. Quencer, Observations on the pathology of human spinal cord injury. A review and classification of 22 new cases with details from a case of chronic cord compression with extensive focal demyelination, Advances in Neurology 59 (1993), 75-89.
18. B. Calancie, M.R. Molano and J.G. Broton, Abductor hallucis for monitoring lowerlimb recovery after spinal cord injury in man, Spinal Cord 42 (2004), 573-580. (Pubitemid 39389969)
19. S. Casha, W.R. Yu and M.G. Fehlings, Oligodendroglial apoptosis occurs along degenerating axons and is associated with FAS and p75 expression following spinal cord injury in the rat, Neuroscience 103 (2001), 203-218. (Pubitemid 32304360)
20. S. Casha, W.R. Yu and M.G. Fehlings, FAS deficiency reduces apoptosis, spares axons and improves function after spinal cord injury, Experimental Neurology 196 (2005), 390-400. (Pubitemid 41607828)
21. J. Cha, C. Heng, D.J. Reinkensmeyer, R.R. Roy, V.R. Edgerton and R.D. De Leon, Locomotor ability in spinal rats is dependent on the amount of activity imposed on the hindlimbs during treadmill training, Journal of Neurotrauma 24 (2007), 1000-1012. (Pubitemid 47015434)
22. T.Y. Chn, C.A. Dickman,M. Eleraky and V.K. Sonntag, The role of decompression for acute incomplete cervical spinal cord injury in cervical spondylosis, Spine 23 (1998), 2398-2403. (Pubitemid 28536060)
23. M.S. Chen, A.B. Huber, M.E. van der Haar, M. Frank, L. Schnell, A.A. Spillmann, F. Christ and M.E. Schwab, NogoA is a myelinassociated neurite outgrowth inhibitor and an antigen for monoclonal antibody IN1, Nature 403 (2000), 434-439. (Pubitemid 30073093)
24. H. Cheng, K.K. Liao, S.F. Liao, T.Y. Chuang and Y.H. Shih, Spinal cord repair with acidic fibroblast growth factor as a treatment for a patient with chronic paraplegia, Spine 29 (2004), E284-E288.
25. D.Cyranoski, Patientswarned about unproven spinal surgery, Nature 440 (2006), 850-851.
26. D. DeForge, J. Nymark, E. Lemaire, S. Gardner, M. Hunt, L. Martel, D. Curran and H. Barbeau, Effect of 4aminopyridine on gait in ambulatory spinal cord injuries: a doubleblind, placebocontrolled, crossover trial, Spinal Cord 42 (2004), 674-685. (Pubitemid 40065531)
27. V.Dietz and S.J.Harkema, Locomotor activity in spinal cordinjured persons, Journal of Applied Physiology 96 (2004), 1954-1960. (Pubitemid 38580025)
28. J.F. Ditunno and C.S. Formal, Chronic spinal cord injury, New England Journal of Medicine 330 (1994), 550-556.
29. J.F. Ditunno, A.S. Burns and R.J. Marino, Neurological and functional capacity outcome measures: essential to spinal cord injury clinical trials, Journal of Rehabilitation, Research, and Development 42 (2005), S35-S41.
30. J.F. Ditunno, H. Barbeau, B.H. Dobkin, R. Elashoff, S. Harkema, R.J. Marino, W.W. Hauck, D. Apple, D.M. Basso, A. Behrman, D. Deforge, L. Fugate, M. Saulino, M. Scott and J. Chung, Spinal Cord Injury Locomotor Trial Group, Validity of the walking scale for spinal cord injury and other domains of function in a multicenter clinical trial, Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair 21(6) (2007), 539-550. (Pubitemid 47585198)
31. B.H.Dobki, H. Barbeau, D.Deforge, J. Ditunno, R. Elashoff, D. Apple, M. Basso, A. Behrman, S. Harkema, M. Saulino andM. Scott, SpinalCord InjuryLocomotorTrialGroup, The evolution ofwalkingrelated outcomes over the first 12weeks of rehabilitation for incomplete traumatic spinal cord injury: the multicenter randomized Spinal Cord Injury Locomotor Trial, Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair 21(1) (2007), 25-35. (Pubitemid 44926969)
32. M.A. Dommergues, F. Plaisant, C. Verney and P. Gressens, Early microglial activation following neonatal excitotoxic brain damage in mice: a potential target for neuroprotection, Neuroscience 121 (2003), 619-628. (Pubitemid 38367501)
33. J.P. Donoghue, L.R. Hochberg, A.V. Nurmikko, M.J. Black, J.D. Simeral and G. Friehs, Neuromotor prosthesis development, Medicine and Health, Rhode Island 90 (2007), 12-15.
34. W.H. Donovan, J.A. Halter, D.E. Graves, A.R. Blight, O. Calvillo, M.T. McCann, A.M. Sherwood, T. Castillo, K.C. Parsons and J.R. Strayer, Intravenous infusion of 4AP in chronic spinal cord injured subjects, Spinal Cord 38 (2000), 7-15. (Pubitemid 30142551)
35. D.M. Dryden, L.D. Saunders, B.H. Rowe, L.A. May, N. Yiannakoulias, L.W. Svenson , D.P. Schopflocher and D.C. Voaklander, The epidemiology of traumatic spinal cord injury in Alberta, Canada, Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences 30 (2003), 113-121. (Pubitemid 36717993)
36. C.I. Dubreuil, M.J.Winton and L. McKerracher, Rho activation patterns after spinal cord injury and the role of activated Rho in apoptosis in the central nervous system, Journal of Cell Biology 162 (2003), 233-243.
37. G.U. Enzmann, R.L. Benton, J.F. Talbott, Q. Cao and S.R. Whittemore, Functional considerations of stem cell transplantation therapy for spinal cord repair, Journal of Neurotrauma 23 (2006), 479-495. (Pubitemid 43726323)
38. M.G. Fehlings and R.G. Perrin, The timing of surgical intervention in the treatment of spinal cord injury: a systematic review of recent clinical evidence, Spine 15 (2006), S28-S35. (Pubitemid 43756257)
39. F. Feron, C. Perry, J. Cochrane, P. Licina, A. Nowitzke, S. Urquhart, T. Geraghty and A. MackaySim, Autologous olfactory ensheathing cell transplantation in human spinal cord injury, Brain 128 (2005), 2951-2960. (Pubitemid 41746648)
40. B.W. Festoff, S. Ameenuddin, P.M. Arnold, A. Wong, K.S. Santacruz and B.A. Citron, Minocycline neuroprotects, reduces microgliosis, and inhibits caspase protease expression early after spinal cord injury, Journal of Neurochemistry 97 (2006), 1314-1326. (Pubitemid 43725571)
41. I.G. Fiefler, P.W. Laud, D.J. Maiman and D.F. Apple, Economics of managed care in spinal cord injury, Archives of PhysicalMedicine and Rehabilitation 80 (1999), 1441-1449. (Pubitemid 29526642)
42. R.D. Fields, Nerve impulses regulate myelination through purinergic signalling, Novartis Foundation Symposium 276 (2006), 148-158.
43. K. Fouad and A. Tse, Adaptive changes in the injured spinal cord and their role in promoting functional recovery, Neurological Research 30 (2008), 17-27. (Pubitemid 351768845)
44. F.H. Geisler, W.P. Coleman, E. Benzel, T. Ducker and R.J. Hurlbert, Spinal cord injury, Lancet 359 (2002), 417-425.
45. M.N. Hadley, B.C. Walters, P.A. Grabb, N.M. Oyesiku, G.J. Przybylski, D.K. Resnick, T.C. Ryken and D.H. Mielke, Guidelines for the management of acute cervical spine and spinal cord injuries, Clinical Neurosurgery 49 (2002), 407-498.
46. T. Hagg and M. Oudega, Degenerative and spontaneous regenerative processes after spinal cord injury, Journal of Neurotrauma 23 (2006), 264-280. (Pubitemid 43726309)
47. J.A. Haisma, L.H. van der Woude, H.J. Stam, M.P. Bergen, T.A. Sluis and J.B. Bussmann, Physical capacity in wheelchairdependent persons with a spinal cord injury: a critical review of the literature, Spinal Cord 44 (2006), 642-652.
48. J.A. Halter, A.R. Blight, W.H. Donovan and O. Calvillo, Intrathecal administration of 4aminopyridine in chronic spinal injured patients, Spinal Cord 38 (2000), 728-732. (Pubitemid 32060052)
49. S.J. Harkema, Plasticity of interneuronal networks of the functionally isolated human spinal cord, Brain Research Reviews 57 (2008), 255-264. (Pubitemid 350213103)
50. S.P. Hsu, Y.H. Shih,M.C. Huang, T.Y. Chuang, W.C. Huang, H.M. Wu, P.H. Lin, L.S. Lee and H. Cheng, Repair of multiple cervical root avulsion with sural nerve graft, Injury 35 (2004), 896-907. (Pubitemid 39070374)
51. T. Ishibashi, K.A. Dakin, B. Stevens, P.R. Lee, S.V. Kozlov, C.L. Stewart and R.D. Fields, Astrocytes promote myelination in response to electrical impulses, Neuron 49 (2006), 823-832. (Pubitemid 43376080)
52. T.B. Jones, E.E.McDaniel and P.G. Popovich, Inflammatorymediated injury and repair in the traumatically injured spinal cord, Current PharmaceuticalDesign 11 (2005), 1223-1236. (Pubitemid 40458268)
53. B.A. Kakulas, A review of the neuropathology of human spinal cord injury with emphasis on special features, Journal of Spinal Cord Medicine 22 (1999), 119-124.
54. E.D. Kay, A. Deutsch and L.A. Wuermser, Predicting walking at discharge from inpatient rehabilitation after a traumatic spinal cord injury, Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 88 (2007), 745-750. (Pubitemid 46802406)
55. P. Kennedy, M.J. Evans, C. Berry and J.Mullin, Comparative analysis of goal achievement during rehabilitation for older and younger adults with spinal cord injury, Spinal Cord 41 (2003), 44-52. (Pubitemid 36132542)
56. P.Kennedy, C. Berry,M. Coggrave, L.Rose and L.Hamilton, The effect of a specialist seating assessment clinic on the skin management of individuals with spinal cord injury, Journal of Tissue Viability 13 (2003), 122-125.
57. B.G. Kim, D.H. Hwang, S.I. Lee, E.J. Kim and S.U. Kim, Stem cellbased cell therapy for spinal cord injury, Cell Transplantation 16 (2007), 355-364.
58. S.C. Kirshblum and K.C. O Connor, Predicting neurologic recovery in traumatic cervical spinal cord injury, Archives of PhysicalMedicine and Rehabilitation 79 (1998), 1456-1466. (Pubitemid 28525134)
59. N. Knoller, G. Auerbach, V. Fulga, G. Zelig, J. Attias, R. Bakimer, J.B. Marder, E. Yoles, M. Belkin, M. Schwartz and M. Hadani, Clinical experience using incubated autologous macrophages as a treatment for complete spinal cord injury: phase I study results, Journal of NeurosurgerySpine 3 (2005), 173-181.
60. J.A. Korecka, J. Verhaagen and E.M. Hol, Cellreplacement and genetherapy strategies for Parkinson s and Alzheimer s disease, Regenerative Medicine 2 (2007), 425-446.
61. A.V. Krassioukov, J.C. Furlan and M.G. Fehlings, Medical comorbidities, secondary complications and mortality in elderly with acute spinal cord injury, Journal of Neurotrauma 20 (2003), 391-399. (Pubitemid 36529885)
62. H.C. Lee, D.Y. Cho, W.Y. Lee and H.C. Chuang, Pitfalls in treatment of acute cervical spinal cord injury using highdose methylprednisolone: a retrospect audit of 111 patients, Surgical Neurology 68 (2007), S37-S42.
63. E.C. Leuthardt, G. Schalk, D.Moran and J.G. Ojemann, The emerging world of motor neuroprosthetics: a neurosurgical perspective, Neurosurgery 59 (2006), 1-14. (Pubitemid 44024329)
64. C. Lima, J. PratasVital, P. Escada, A. HasseFerreira, C. Capucho and J.D. Peduzzi, Olfactory mucosa autografts in human spinal cord injury: a pilot clinical study, Journal of Spinal Cord Medicine 29 (2006), 191-206.
65. L. Longhi, E.R. Zanier, N. Royo, N. Stocchetti and T.K. McIntosh, Stem cell transplantation as a therapeutic strategy for traumatic brain injury, Transplant Immunology 15 (2005), 143-148. (Pubitemid 43075334)
66. A.J. Mariano, Chronic pain and spinal cord injury, Clinical Journal of Pain 8 (1992), 87-92.
67. R.J.Marino, T. Barros, F. BieringSorensen, S.P. Burns,W.H. Donovan, D.E. Graves, M. Haak, L.M Hudson and M.M. Priebe, ASIA Neurological Standards Committee, International standards for neurological classification of spinal cord injury, Journal of Spinal Cord Medicine 26(S1) (2003), 50-56.
68. R.J. Marino and D.E. Graves, Metric properties of the ASIA motor score: subscales improve correlation with functional activities, Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 85 (2004), 1804-1810.
69. F.Martins, F. Freitas, L.Martins, J.F.Dartigues andM. Barat, Spinal cord injuriesepidemiologies in Portugal s central region. Spinal Cord 36 (1998), 574-578. (Pubitemid 28383224)
70. F.M. Maynard, M.B. Bracken, G. Creasey, J.F. Ditunno Jr, W.H. Donovan, T.B. Ducker, S.L. Garber, R.J. Marino, S.L. Stover, C.H. Tator, R.L. Waters, J.E. Wilberger and W. Young, American Spinal Injury Association, International standards for neurological and functional classification of spinal cord injury, Spinal Cord 35 (1997), 266-274.
71. W.O. McKinley, A.B. Jackson, D.D. Cardenas and M.J. DeVivo, Longterm medical complications after traumatic spinal cord injury: a regional model systems analysis, Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 80 (1999), 1402-1410. (Pubitemid 29526637)
72. W. McKinley, M.A. Tewksbury, P. Sitter, J. Reed and S. Floyd, Assistive technology and computer adaptations for individuals with spinal cord injury, Neurorehabilitation 19 (2004), 141-146. (Pubitemid 38803064)
73. S.L.Minger, A. Ekonomou, E.M.Carta, A.Chinoy, R.H. Perry and C.G. Ballard, Endogenous neurogenesis in the human brain following cerebral infarction, Regenerative Medicine 2 (2007), 69-74. (Pubitemid 46824414)
74. S. Nesathurai, Steroids and spinal cord injury: revisiting the NASCIS 2 and NASCIS 3 trials, Journal of TraumaInjury, Infection, and Critical Care 45 (1998), 1088-1093. (Pubitemid 29004125)
75. S. Nesathurai, The role ofmethylprednisolone in acute spinal cord injuries, Journal of Trauma 51 421-423.
76. B. Niederost, T. Oertle, J. Fritsche, R.A.McKinney and C.E. Bandtlow, NogoA and myelinassociated glycoprotein mediate neurite growth inhibition by antagonistic regulation of RhoA and Rac1, Journal of Neuroscience 22 (2002), 10368-10376. (Pubitemid 35416874)
77. P. O Connor, Incidence and patterns of spinal cord injury in Australia, Accident; Analysis and Prevention 34 (2002), 405-415. (Pubitemid 34498178)
78. M. Oudega, C.G. Vargas, A.B.Weber, N. Kleitman andM.B. Bunge, Longterm effects of methylprednisolone following transection of adult rat spinal cord, European Journal of Neuroscience 11 (1999), 2453-2464. (Pubitemid 29292340)
79. M.C. Pagliacci, M. Celani, M. Zampolini, L. Spizzichino, M. Franceschini, S. Baratta, G. Finali, G. Gatta and L. Perdon, Gruppo Italiano Studio Epidemiologico Mielolesioni, An Italian survey of traumatic spinal injury, Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 84 (2003), 1266-1275. (Pubitemid 37082311)
80. S.M. Papadopoulos, N.R. Selden, D.J. Quint, N. Patel, B. Gillespie and S. Grube, Immediate spinal cord decompression for cervical spinal cord injury: feasibility and outcome, Journal of Trauma 52 (2002), 323-332. (Pubitemid 34183801)
81. C.L. Parish and E. Arenas, Stemcellbased strategies for the treatment of Parkinson s disease, Neurodegenerative Diseases 4 (2007), 339-347. (Pubitemid 47026190)
82. P. Patki, R. Hamid, J. Shah and M. Craggs, Fertility following spinal cord injury: a systematic review, Spinal Cord 45 (2007), 187. (Pubitemid 46204268)
83. P.H. Peckham and J.S. Knutson, Functional electrical stimulation for neuromuscular applications, Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering 7 (2005), 327-360. (Pubitemid 41170191)
84. S. Polinder, E.F. van Beeck, M.L. EssinkBot, H. Toet, C.W. Looman, S. Mulder and W.J. Meerding, Functional outcome at 2.5, 5, 9, and 24 months after injury in the Netherlands, Journal of Trauma 62 (2007), 133-141. (Pubitemid 46102844)
85. D.B. Popović and M.B. Popović, Hybrid assistive systems for rehabilitation: lessons learned from functional electrical therapy in hemiplegics, Conference Proceedings of the IEEE Engineering inMedicine and Biology Society 1 (2006), 2146-2149.
86. T. Qian, X. Guo, A.D. Levi, S. Vanni, R.T. Shebert and M.L. Sipski, Highdose methylprednisolone may cause myopathy in acute spinal cord injury patients, Spinal Cord 43 (2005), 199-203. (Pubitemid 40546717)
87. M.S. Ramer, G.P. Harper and E.J. Bradbury, Progress in spinal cord research - a refined strategy for the International Spinal Research Trust, Spinal Cord 38 (2000), 449-472.
88. R.M. Richardson, D. Sun and M.R. Bullock, Neurogenesis after traumatic brain injury, Neurosurgery Clinicals of North America 18 (2007), 169-181. (Pubitemid 46164759)
89. S. Rossignol, Plasticity of connections underlying locomotor recovery after central and/or peripheral lesions in the adult mammals, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London BBiological Sciences 361 (2006), 1647-1671. (Pubitemid 44450216)
90. S. Rossignol, G. Barriére, A. Frigon, D. Barthélemy, L. Bouyer, J. Provencher, H. Leblond and G. Bernard, Plasticity of locomotor sensorimotor interactions after peripheral and/or spinal lesions, Brain Research Reviews 57 (2008), 228-240. (Pubitemid 350218167)
91. I. Salimi and J.H. Martin, Rescuing transient corticospinal terminations and promoting growth with corticospinal stimulation in kittens, Journal of Neuroscience 24 (2004), 4952-4961. (Pubitemid 38697828)
92. B. Sawatzky, C.M. Bishop andW.C.Miller; SCIRE Research Team, Classification and measurement of pain in the spinal cordinjured population, Spinal Cord 46 (2008), 2-10.
93. M. Schwartz and E. Yoles, Immunebased therapy for spinal cord repair: autologous macrophages and beyond, Journal of Neurotrauma 23 (2006), 360-370. (Pubitemid 43739276)
94. B. Silberstein and S. Rabinovich, Epidemiologies of spinal cord injuries in Novosibirsk, Russia, Paraplegia 33 (1995), 322-325.
95. R.E. Stanford, R. Soden, R. Bartrop, M. Mikk and T.K. Taylor, Spinal cord and related injuries after attempted suicide: psychiatric diagnosis and longterm followup, Spinal Cord 45 (2007), 437-443. (Pubitemid 46878148)
96. D.P. Stirling, K. Khodarahmi, J. Liu, L.T. McPhail, C.B.McBride, J.D. Steeves, M.S.Ramer and W. Tetzlaff, Minocycline treatment reduces delayed oligodendrocyte death, attenuates axonal dieback, and improves functional outcome after spinal cord injury, Journal of Neuroscience 24 (2004), 2182-2190. (Pubitemid 38314550)
97. D.J. Strauss, M.J. DeVivo, D.R. Paculdo and R.M. Shavelle, Trends in life expectancy after spinal cord injury, Archives of PhysicalMedicine and Rehabilitation 87 (2006), 1079-1085. (Pubitemid 44107849)
98. TheNational SpinalCord Injury StatisticalCenter Fact Sheet, Birmingham, AL. Available at www.nscisc.uab.edu. April 2009.
99. T.M. Tikka and J.E. Koistinaho, Minocycline provides neuroprotection against NmethylDaspartate neurotoxicity by inhibiting microglia, Journal of Immunology 166 (2001), 7527-7533.
100. S. Tsutsumi, T. Ueta, K. Shiba, S. Yamamoto and K. Takagishi, Effects of the Second National Acute Spinal Cord Injury Study of highdose methylprednisolone therapy on acute cervical spinal cord injuryresults in spinal injuries center, Spine 31 (2006), 2992-2997. (Pubitemid 46005887)
101. H.J. van Hedel, M. Wirz and V. Dietz, Assessing walking ability in subjects with spinal cord injury: validity and reliability of 3 walking tests, Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 86 (2005), 190-196. (Pubitemid 40215278)
102. L.C.Weaver, D.R. Marsh, D. Gris, A. Brown and G.A. Dekaban, Autonomic dysreflexia after spinal cord injury: central mechanisms and strategies for prevention, Progress in Brain Research 152 (2006), 245-263.
103. E.G.WiderströmNoga, E. FelipeCuervo, J.G. Broton, R.C. Duncan and R.P. Yezierski, Perceived difficulty in dealing with consequences of spinal cord injury, Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 80 (1999), 580-586. (Pubitemid 29221051)
104. E.G. WiderströmNoga and D.C. Turk, Exacerbation of chronic pain following spinal cord injury, Journal of Neurotrauma 21 (2004), 1384-1395. (Pubitemid 39435315)
105. E.G. WiderströmNoga, E.R. Felix, Y. CruzAlmeida and D.C. Turk, Psychosocial subgroups in persons with spinal cord injuries and chronic pain, Archives of PhysicalMedicine and Rehabilitation 88 (2007), 1628-1635. (Pubitemid 350151403)
106. C. Winslow, R.K. Bode, D. Felton, D. Chen and P.R. Meyer, Impact of respiratory complications on length of stay and hospital costs in acute cervical spine injury, Chest 121 (2002), 1548-1554. (Pubitemid 34499669)
107. M.J. Winton, C.I. Dubreuil, D. Lasko, N. Leclerc and L. McKerracher, Characterization of new cell permeable C3like proteins that inactivate Rho and stimulate neurite outgrowth on inhibitory substrates, Journal of Biological Chemistry 277 (2002), 32820-32829. (Pubitemid 34984792)
108. J.R.Wolpaw and A.M. Tennissen, Activitydependent spinal cord plasticity in health and disease, Annual Review of Neuroscience 24 (2001), 807-843. (Pubitemid 32695246)
109. M. Wyndaele and J.J. Wyndaele, Incidence, prevalence and epidemiology of spinal cord injury: what learns a worldwide literature survey? Spinal Cord 44 (2006), 523-529. (Pubitemid 44338756)