Increasing social engagement among lonely individuals: The role of acceptance cues and promotion motivations

Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin

Volumn 36, Issue 10, 2010, Pages 1346-1359

  Lucas, Gale M ^a   Knowles, Megan L ^b   Gardner, Wendi L ^a   Molden, Daniel C ^a   Jefferis, Valerie E ^c  

^a NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b FRANKLIN AND MARSHALL COLLEGE   (United States)

^c OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

acceptance; belonging; loneliness; regulatory focus; social exclusion

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; ASSOCIATION; CLINICAL TRIAL; CONTROLLED CLINICAL TRIAL; CONTROLLED STUDY; FEMALE; HUMAN; HUMAN RELATION; LEARNING; LONELINESS; MALE; MOTIVATION; NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR; SOCIAL ISOLATION; SOCIAL SUPPORT; UNITED STATES;

CUES; FEMALE; HUMANS; INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS; LONELINESS; MALE; MOTIVATION; NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION; SET (PSYCHOLOGY); SOCIAL BEHAVIOR; SOCIAL ISOLATION; SOCIAL SUPPORT; UNITED STATES;

EID: 77957221076     PISSN: 01461672     EISSN: 15527433     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0146167210382662     Document Type: Article

References (62)

1. Aiken, L.S., & West, S.G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
2. Anderson, C.M., & Martin, M.M. (1995). The effects of communication motives, interaction involvement, and loneliness on satisfaction: A model of small groups. Small Group Research, 26, 118-137.
3. Bavelas, J.B., Black, A., Lemery, C.R., & Mullett, J. (1987). Motor mimicry as primitive empathy. In N. Eisenberg & J. Strayer (Eds.), Empathy and its development (pp. 317-338). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
4. Bellack, A.S., & Morrison, R.L. (1982). Interpersonal dysfunction. In A. S. Bellack, M. Hersen, & A. E. Kazdin (Eds.), International handbook of behavior modification and therapy (pp. 717-747). New York, NY: Plenum.
5. Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment. New York, NY: Basic Books.
6. Brewer, M.B. (2005). The psychological impact of social isolation: Discussion and commentary. In K. D. Williams, J. P. Forgas, & W. von Hippel (Eds.), The social outcast: Ostracism, social exclusion, rejection, and bullying (pp. 333-345). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
7. Cacioppo, J.T., & Hawkley, L.C. (2005). People thinking about people: The vicious cycle of being a social outcast in one's own mind. In K. P. Williams, J. P. Forgas, & W. von Hippel (Eds.), The social outcast: Ostracism, social exclusion, rejection, and bullying (pp. 91-108). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
8. Cacioppo, J.T., Hawkley, L.C., Ernst, J.M., Burleson, M., Berntson, G.G., Nouriani, B., & Spiegel, D. (2006). Loneliness within a nomological net: An evolutionary perspective. Journal of Research in Personality, 40, 1054-1085.
9. Cacioppo, J.T. & Patrick, W. (2008). Loneliness. New York, NY: W. W. Norton.
10. Camacho, C.J., Higgins, E.T., & Luger, L. (2003). Moral value transfer from regulatory fit: What feels right is right and what feels wrong is wrong. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 498-510.
11. Cegala, D.J. (1981). Interaction involvement: A cognitive dimension of communicative competence. Communication Education, 30, 109-121.
12. Chartrand, T.L., & Bargh, J.A. (1999). The chameleon effect: The perception-behavior link and social interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 893-910.
13. Cheng, C.M., & Chartrand, T.L. (2003). Self-monitoring without awareness: Using mimicry as a nonconscious affiliation strategy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 1170-1179.
14. Crowe, E., & Higgins, E.T. (1997). Regulatory focus and strategic inclinations: Promotion and prevention in decision-making. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 69, 117-132.
15. Davis, J.A., & Smith, T.W. (1998). General Social Surveys, 1972-1998: Cumulative codebook. Chicago, IL: National Opinion Research Center (NORC).
16. DeWall, C.N. Baumeister, R.F., & Vohs, K.D. (2008). Satiated with belongingness? Effects of acceptance, rejection, and task framing on self-regulatory performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 1367-1382.
17. DeWall, C.N., Maner, J.K., & Rouby, D.A. (2009). Social exclusion and early-stage interpersonal perception: Selective attention to signs of acceptance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96, 729-741.
18. Downey, G., & Feldman, S.I. (1996). Implications of rejection sensitivity for intimate relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 1327-1343.
19. Duke, D., Krishnan, M., Faith, M., & Storch, E.A. (2006). The psychometric properties of the Brief Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 20, 807-817.
20. Fitzsimons, G.M., & Shah, J.Y. (2008). How goal instrumentality shapes relationship evaluations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 319-337.
21. Forster, J., Higgins, E.T., & Idson, L.C. (1998). Approach and avoidance strength during goal attainment: Regulatory focus and the goal looms larger effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 1115-1131.
22. Freitas, A.L., & Higgins, E.T. (2002). Enjoying goal-directed action: The role of regulatory fit. Psychological Science, 13, 1-6.
23. Friedman, R., & Forster, J. (2000). The effects of approach and avoidance motor actions on the elements of creative insight. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 477-492.
24. Friedman, R., & Forster, J. (2001). The effects of promotion and prevention cues on creativity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 1001-1013.
25. Gardner, W.L., Pickett, C.L., & Brewer, M.B. (2000). Social exclusion and selective memory: How the need to belong influences memory for social events. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 486-496.
26. Gardner, W.L., Pickett, C.L., Jefferis, V., & Knowles, M. (2005). On the outside looking in: Loneliness and social monitoring. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 1549-1560.
27. Hayes, A.F. (1998). Within-study meta-analysis: Pooling the significance of doubly-nonindependent (nonoverlapping) correlations. Psychological Methods, 3, 32-45.
28. Hess, U., Philippot, P., & Blairy, S. (1999). Mimicry: Fact and fiction. In P. Philippot, R. S. Feldman, & E. J. Coates (Eds.), The social context of nonverbal behavior (pp. 213-241). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
29. Higgins, E.T. (1997). Beyond pleasure and pain. American Psychologist, 52, 1280-1300.
30. Higgins, E.T., Roney, C., Crowe, E., & Hymes, C. (1994). Ideal versus ought predilections for approach and avoidance: Distinct self-regulatory systems. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 276-286.
31. Hogan, R., Jones, W.H., & Cheek, J.M. (1985). Socioanalytic theory: An alternative to armadillo psychology. In B. R. Schlenker (Ed.), The self in social life (pp. 175-196). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
32. Horowitz, L.M., & French, R. de S. (1979). Interpersonal problems of people who describe themselves as lonely. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 47, 762-764.
33. Impett, E.A., Gable, S., & Peplau, L.A. (2005). Giving up and giving in: The costs and benefits of daily sacrifice in intimate relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 327-344.
34. Isen, A.M. (1987). Positive affect, cognitive processes and social behavior. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (pp. 203-253). New York, NY: Academic Press.
35. Jones, W.H., Hobbs, S.A., & Hockenbury, D. (1982). Loneliness and social skill deficits. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 682-689.
36. Judd, C.M., & McClelland, G.H. (1989). Data analysis: A model comparison approach. New York, NY: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
37. Knowles, M.L., Lucas, G.M., Gardner, W.L., & Baumeister, R.F. (2010). Choking under social pressure: Interpersonal appraisal among lonely individuals. Unpublished manuscript, University of Georgia, Athens, GA.
38. Lakin, J., & Chartrand, T.L. (2003). Using nonconscious behavioral mimicry to create affiliation and rapport. Psychological Science, 14, 334-339.
39. Lakin, J.L., & Chartrand, T. (2005). Exclusion and nonconscious behavioral mimicry. In K. D. Williams, J. P. Forgas, & W. von Hippel (Eds.), The social outcast: Ostracism, social exclusion, rejection, and bullying (pp. 279-296). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
40. Leary, M.R., & Kowalski, R.M. (1995). Social anxiety. New York, NY: Guilford.
41. Liberman, N., Molden, D.C., Idson, L.C., & Higgins, E.T. (2001). Promotion and prevention focus on alternative hypotheses: Implications for attributional functions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 5-18.
42. London, B., Downey, G., Bonica, C., & Paltin, I. (2007). Social causes and consequences of rejection sensitivity. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 17, 481-506.
43. Maner, J.K., DeWall, C.N., Baumeister, R.F., & Schaller, M. (2007). Does social exclusion motivate interpersonal reconnection? Resolving the porcupine problem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 42-55.
44. Maslow, A. (1955). Deficiency motivation and growth motivation. In M. Jones (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation: 1955 (pp. 1-30). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
45. Molden, D.C., Lee, A.Y., & Higgins, E.T. (2008). Motivations for promotion and prevention. In J. Shah & W. Gardner (Eds.) Handbook of motivation science (pp. 169-187). New York, NY: Guilford.
46. Molden, D.C., Lucas, G.M., Gardner, W.L., Dean, K., & Knowles, M.L. (2009). Motivations for prevention or promotion following social exclusion: Being rejected versus being ignored. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96, 415-431.
47. Murray, S.L., Holmes, J.G., & Collins, N.L. (2006). Optimizing assurance: The risk regulation system in relationships. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 641-666.
48. Nurmi, J.E., & Salmela-Aro, K. (1997). Social strategies and loneliness: A prospective study. Personality and Individual Differences, 23, 205-215.
49. Peplau, L.A., & Perlman, D. (1982). Loneliness: A sourcebook of current theory, research, and therapy. New York, NY: Wiley.
50. Pickett, C., & Gardner, W.L. (2005). The social monitoring system: Enhanced sensitivity to social cues as an adaptive response to social exclusion. In K. D. Williams, J. P. Forgas, & W. von Hippel (Eds.), The social outcast: Ostracism, social exclusion, rejection, and bullying (pp. 213-226). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
51. Pickett, C., Gardner, W.L., & Knowles, M.L. (2004). Getting a cue: The need to belong influences attention to subtle social cues. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 1095-1107.
52. Pilkonis, P.A. (1977). The behavioral consequences of anxiety. Journal of Personality, 45, 596-611.
53. Roese, N.J., Hur, T., & Pennington, G.L. (1999). Counterfactual thinking and regulatory focus: Implications for action versus inaction and sufficiency versus necessity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 1109-1120.
54. Rosenthal, R. (1991). Meta-analytic procedures for social research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
55. Russell, D., Peplau, L.A., & Cutrona, C.E. (1980). The Revised UCLA Loneliness Scale: Concurrent and discriminant validity evidence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 472-480.
56. Seibt, B., & Forster, J. (2004). Stereotype threat and performance: How self-stereotypes influence processing by inducing regulatory foci. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 38-56.
57. Solano, C.H., Batten, P.G., & Parish, E. (1982). Loneliness and patterns of self-disclosure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 524-531.
58. Solano, C.H., & Koester, N.H. (1989). Loneliness and communication problems: Subjective anxiety or objective skills? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 15, 126-133.
59. Spencer, S.J., Zanna, M.P., & Fong, G.T. (2005). Establishing a causal chain: Why experiments are often more effective in examining psychological process than mediational analyses. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 845-851.
60. Srull, T.K., & Wyer, R.S. (1979). The role of category accessibility in the interpretation of information about persons: Some determinants and implications. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1660-1672.
61. Stangier, U., Heidenreich, T., & Schermelleh-Engel, K. (2006). Safety behaviors and social performance in patients with generalized social phobia. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 20, 17-31.
62. Tesser, A., & Cornell, D.P. (1991). On the confluence of self-processes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 27, 501-526.