Urbanization and the natural environment: An environmental sociological review and synthesis

Organization and Environment

Volumn 23, Issue 3, 2010, Pages 291-314

  Clement, Matthew Thomas ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OREGON   (United States)

Author keywords

environmental sociology; natural environment; urbanization

Indexed keywords

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT; LITERATURE REVIEW; PARADIGM SHIFT; RESEARCH WORK; URBANIZATION;

EID: 77957049392     PISSN: 10860266     EISSN: 15527417     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/1086026610382621     Document Type: Review

References (169)

1. Albrecht, D.E., & Murdock, S.H. (2002). Rural environments and agriculture. In R. E. Dunlap & W. Michelson (Eds.), Handbook of environmental sociology (pp. 192-221). Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
2. Anderson, C.H. (1976). The sociology of survival: Social problems of growth. Homewood, IL: Dorsey Press.
3. Anderton, D.L., Anderson, A.B., Oakes, J.M., & Fraser, M.R. (1994). Environmental equity: The demographics of dumping. Demography, 31, 229-248.
4. Barles, S., & Lestel, L. (2007). The nitrogen question: Urbanization, industrialization, and river quality in Paris, 1830-1939. Journal of Urban History, 33, 794-812.
5. Barth, G.P. (1975). Instant cities: Urbanization and the rise of San Francisco and Denver. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
6. Bell, J.K. (1991). Women, environment and urbanization: A guide to the literature. Environment & Urbanization, 3, 92-103.
7. Bell, S.E., & York, R. (2010). Community economic identity: The coal industry and ideology construction in West Virginia. Rural Sociology, 75, 111-143.
8. Benet, F. (1963). Sociology uncertain: The ideology of the rural-urban continuum. Comparative Studies in Society and History, 6, 1-23.
9. Bookchin, M. (1974). The limits of the city. New York, NY: Harper & Row.
10. Bullard, R.D. (2000). Dumping in Dixie: Race, class, and environmental quality. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
11. Bunker, S.G. (1984). Modes of extraction, unequal exchange, and the progressive underdevelopment of an extreme periphery: The Brazilian Amazon, 1600-1980. American Journal of Sociology, 89, 1017-1064.
12. Bunker, S.G., & Ciccantell, P.S. (2005). Globalization and the race for resources. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
13. Burch, W.R. (1971). Daydreams and nightmares: A sociological essay on the American environment. New York, NY: Harper & Row.
14. Buttel, F.H. (2002). Environmental sociology and the classical sociological tradition: Some observations on current controversies. In R. E. Dunlap, F. H. Buttel, P. Dickens, & A. Gijswijt (Eds.), Sociological theory and the environment: Classical foundations, contemporary insights (pp. 35-50). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
15. Buttel, F.H., & Flinn, W.L. (1977). The interdependence of rural and urban environmental problems in advanced capitalist societies: Models of linkage. Sociologia Ruralis, 17, 255-281.
16. Buttel, F.H., & Humphrey, C.R. (2002). Sociological theory and the natural environment. In R. E. Dunlap & W. Michelson (Eds.), Handbook of environmental sociology (pp. 33-69). Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
17. Carson, R. (2002). Silent spring. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
18. Castells, M. (1979). The urban question: A Marxist approach. Cambridge: MIT Press.
19. Catton, W.R., Jr. (1980). Overshoot: The ecological basis of revolutionary change. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
20. Catton, W.R., Jr., & Dunlap, R.E. (1978). Environmental sociology: A new paradigm. American Sociologist, 13, 41-49.
21. Chew, S.C. (2001). World ecological degradation: Accumulation, urbanization and deforestation, 3000 B.C.-A.D. 2000. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.
22. Chew, S.C. (2007). The recurring Dark Ages: Ecological stress, climate changes, and system transformation. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.
23. Chew, S.C. (2008). Ecological futures: What history can teach us. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.
24. Cieslewicz, D.J. (2002). The environmental impacts of sprawl. In G. D. Squires (Ed.), Urban sprawl: Causes, consequences & policy responses (pp. 23-38). Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press.
25. Clark, B., & Foster, J.B. (2006). The environmental conditions of the working class: An introduction to selections from Frederick Engels's the condition of the working class in England in 1844. Organization & Environment, 19, 375-388.
26. Clark, B., & York, R. (2005). Carbon metabolism: Global capitalism, climate change, and the biospheric rift. Theory and Society, 34, 391-428.
27. Clarke, L. (2006). Worst cases: Terror and catastrophe in the popular imagination. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
28. Clausen, R. (2007). Healing the rift: Metabolic restoration in Cuban agriculture. Monthly Review, 59, 40-52.
29. Clausen, R., & Clark, B. (2005). The metabolic rift and marine ecology: An analysis of the ocean crisis within capitalist production. Organization & Environment, 18, 422-444
30. Clement, M.T. (2009). A basic accounting of variation in municipal solid waste generation at the county-level in Texas, 2006: Groundwork for applying metabolic-rift theory to waste generation. Rural Sociology, 74, 412-429.
31. Colten, C.E. (2006). An unnatural metropolis: Wresting New Orleans from nature. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press.
32. Cronon, W. (1991). Nature's metropolis. New York, NY: W. W. Norton.
33. Crowder, K., & Downey, L. (2010). Interneighborhood migration, race, and environmental hazards: Modeling microlevel processes of environmental inequality. American Journal of Sociology, 115, 1110-1149.
34. Davidson, P., & Anderton, D.L. (2000). Demographics of dumping II: A national environmental equity survey and the distribution of hazardous materials handlers. Demography, 37, 461-466.
35. Davis, K. (1955). The origin and growth of urbanization in the world. American Journal of Sociology, 60, 429-437.
36. Davis, M. (1992). City of quartz: Excavating the future in Los Angeles. New York, NY: Vintage Books.
37. Davis, M. (1998). Ecology of fear: Los Angeles and the imagination of disaster. New York, NY: Metropolitan Books.
38. Davis, M. (2002). Late Victorian holocausts: El Niño famines and the making of the Third World. London, England: Verso.
39. Davis, M. (2006). Planet of slums. London, England: Verso.
40. DeFries, R.S., Rudel, T., Uriarte, M., & Hansen M. (2010). Deforestation driven by urban population growth and agricultural trade in the twenty-first century. Nature Geoscience, 3, 178-181.
41. Decker, E.H., Elliott, S., Smith, F.A., Blake, D.R., & Rowland, F.S. (2000). Energy and material flow through the urban ecosystem. Annual Review of Energy and the Environment, 25, 685-740.
42. Dickens, P. (2004). Society & nature: Changing our environment, changing ourselves. Cambridge, England: Polity Press.
43. Donner, W., & Rodríguez, H. (2008). Population composition, migration and inequality: The influence of demographic changes on disaster risk and vulnerability. Social Forces, 87, 1089-1114.
44. Downey, L. (2005). The unintended significance of race: Environmental racial inequality in Detroit. Social Forces, 83, 971-1008.
45. Downey, L. (2006a). Environmental inequality in metropolitan America in 2000. Sociological Spectrum, 26, 21-41.
46. Downey, L. (2006b). Environmental racial inequality in Detroit. Social Forces, 85, 771-796.
47. Downey, L. (2007). US metropolitan-area variation in environmental inequality outcomes. Urban Studies, 44, 953-977.
48. Downey, L., Dubois, S., Hawkins, B., & Walker, M. (2008). Environmental inequality in metropolitan America. Organization & Environment, 21, 270-294.
49. Dunlap, R.E. (1997). The evolution of environmental sociology: A brief history and assessment of the American experience. In M. Redclift & G. Woodgate (Eds.), The international handbook of environmental sociology (pp. 21-39). Cheltenham, England: Edward Elgar.
50. Dunlap, R.E., & Catton, W.R., Jr. (1979). Environmental sociology. Annual Review of Sociology, 5, 243-273.
51. Dunlap, R.E., & Catton, W.R., Jr. (1994). Struggling with human exemptionalism: The rise, decline and revitalization of environmental sociology. The American Sociologist, 25, 5-30.
52. Dye, C. (2008). Health and urban living. Science, 319, 766-769.
53. Ehrhardt-Martinez, K. (1998). Social determinants of deforestation in developing countries: A cross-national study. Social Forces, 77, 567-586.
54. Ehrhardt-Martinez, K., Crenshaw, E.M., & Jenkins, J.C. (2002). Deforestation and the environmental Kuznets Curve: A cross-national investigation of intervening mechanisms. Social Science Quarterly, 83, 226-243.
55. Engels, F. (1950). The conditions of the working class in England in 1844. London, England: Allen & Unwin. (Original work published 1892).
56. Ergas, C. (2010). A model of sustainable living: Collective identity in an urban ecovillage. Organization & Environment, 23, 32-54.
57. Erickson, K. (1976). Everything in its path: Destruction of community in the Buffalo Creek flood. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
58. Feagin, J.R. (1985). The global context of metropolitan growth: Houston and the oil industry. American Journal of Sociology, 90, 1204-1230.
59. Fernandes, S.D., Trautmann, N.M., Streets, D.G., Roden, C.A., & Bond, T.C. (2007). Global biofuel use, 1850-2000. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 21, GB2019.
60. Fischer, Claude S. 1976. The Urban Experience. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc.
61. Foster, J. (1999a). Marx's theory of metabolic rift: Classical foundations for environmental sociology. American Journal of Sociology, 105, 366-405.
62. Foster, J. (1999b). The vulnerable planet: A short economic history of the environment. New York, NY: Monthly Review Press.
63. Foster, J. (2000). Marx's ecology: Materialism and nature. New York, NY: Monthly Review Press.
64. Foster, J. (2002). Capitalism and ecology: The nature of the contradiction. Monthly Review, 54, 6-16.
65. Foster, J.B., & Magdoff, F. (1998). Liebig, Marx, and the depletion of soil fertility: Relevance for today's agriculture. Monthly Review, 50, 32-45.
66. Fox, J. (1999). Mountaintop removal in West Virginia: An environmental sacrifice zone. Organization & Environment, 12, 163-183.
67. Freudenburg, W.R., Gramling, R., Laska, S.B., & Erikson, K. (2009). Catastrophe in the making: The engineering of Katrina and the disasters of tomorrow. Washington, DC: Island Press.
68. Frickel, S., & Elliott, J.R. (2008). Tracking industrial land use conversions: A new approach for studying relict waste and urban development. Organization & Environment, 21, 128-147.
69. Gibbs, J.P., & Martin, W.T. (1958). Urbanization and natural resources: A study in organizational ecology. American Sociological Review, 23, 266-277.
70. Glaeser, B. (1997). Environment and developing countries. In M. Redclift & G. Woodgate (Eds.), The international handbook of environmental sociology (pp. 101-118). Cheltenham, England: Edward Elgar.
71. Gonzalez, G.A. (2005a). The politics of air pollution: Urban growth, ecological modernization, and symbolic inclusion. Albany: State University of New York Press.
72. Gonzalez, G.A. (2005b). Urban sprawl, global warming and the limits of ecological modernisation. Environmental Politics, 14, 344-362.
73. Gonzalez, G.A. (2006). An eco-Marxist analysis of oil depletion via urban sprawl. Environmental Politics, 15, 515-531.
74. Gonzalez, G.A. (2009). Urban sprawl, global warming, and the empire of capital. Albany: State University of New York Press.
75. Gossard, M.H., & York, R. (2003). Social structural influences on meat consumption. Human Ecology Review, 10, 1-9.
76. Gottlieb, R. (2007). Reinventing Los Angeles: Nature and community in the global city. Cambridge: MIT Press.
77. Gould, K.A., Pellow, D.N., & Schnaiberg, A. (2008). The treadmill of production: Injustice and unsustainability in the global economy. Boulder, CO: Paradigm.
78. Grimm, N.B., Faeth, S.H., Golubiewski, N.E., Redman, C.R., Wu, J., Bai, X., & Briggs, J.M. (2008a). Global change and the ecology of cities. Science, 319, 756-760.
79. Grimm, N.B., Foster, D., Groffman, P., Grove, J.M., Hopkinson, C.S., Nadelhoffer, K.,. . . Pataki, D.E. (2008b). The changing landscape: Ecosystem responses to urbanization and pollution across climatic and societal gradients. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 6, 264-272.
80. Hardoy, J., & Pandiella, G. (2009). Urban poverty and vulnerability to climate change in Latin America. Environment & Urbanization, 21, 203-224.
81. Harlan, S.L., Brazel, A.J., Jenerette, G.D., Jones, N.S., Larsen, L., & Prash, L. (2008). In the shade of affluence: The inequitable distribution of the urban heat island. Research in Social Problems and Public Policy, 15, 173-202.
82. Harvey, D. (1996). Justice, nature, and the geography of difference. Cambridge, England: Blackwell.
83. Hawley, A.H. (1971). Urban society: An ecological approach. New York, NY: Ronald Press Company.
84. Hessler, P. (2007). China's instant cities. National Geographic, 211(6), 88-117.
85. Heynen, N. C., Kaika, M., & Swyngedouw, E. (Eds.). (2006). In the nature of cities: Urban political ecology and the politics of urban metabolism. London, England: Routledge.
86. Humphrey, C.R., Lewis, T.L., & Buttel, F.H. (2002). Environment, energy, and society: A new synthesis. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Thomson Learning.
87. Jacobs, J. (1970). The economy of cities. New York, NY: Vintage Books.
88. Jacobs, J. (2000). The nature of economies. New York, NY: Random House.
89. Jorgenson, A.K. (2004). Uneven processes and environmental degradation in the world-economy. Human Ecology Review, 11, 103-117.
90. Jorgenson, A.K., & Burns, T.J. (2007). Effects of rural and urban population dynamics and national development on deforestation in less-developed countries, 1990-2000. Sociological Inquiry, 77, 460-482.
91. Jorgenson, A.K., Rice, J., & Clark, B. (2010). Cities, slums, and energy consumption in less developed countries, 1990 to 2005. Organization & Environment, 23, 189-204.
92. Kay, J.H. (1997). Asphalt nation: How the automobile took over America, and how we can take it back. New York, NY: Crown.
93. Kennedy, C., Cuddihy, J., & Engel-Yan, J. (2007). The changing metabolism of cities. Journal of Industrial Ecology, 11, 43-59.
94. Kinkela, D. (2009). The ecological landscapes of Jane Jacobs and Rachel Carson. American Quarterly, 61, 905-928.
95. Klinenberg, E. (2002). Heat wave: A social autopsy of disaster. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
96. Liu, J., Daily, G.C., Ehrlich, P.R., & Luck, G.W. (2003). Effects of household dynamics on resource consumption and biodiversity. Nature, 421, 530-533.
97. Logan, J.R., & Molotch, H.L. (1987). Urban fortunes: The political economy of place. Berkeley: University of California Press.
98. Logan, J.R., & Zhou, M. (1989). Do suburban growth controls control growth? American Sociological Review, 54, 461-471.
99. Mace, R. (2008). Reproducing in cities. Science, 319, 764-766.
100. Mancus, P. (2007). Nitrogen fertilizer dependency and its contradictions: A theoretical exploration of social-ecological metabolism. Rural Sociology, 72, 269-288.
101. Martin, W.T. (1957). Ecological change in satellite rural areas. American Sociological Review, 22, 173-183.
102. Massard-Guilbaud, G., & Thorsheim, P. (2007). Cities, environments, and European history. Journal of Urban History, 33, 691-701.
103. McGranahan, G., Balk, D., & Anderson, B. (2007). The rising tide: Assessing the risks of climate change and human settlements in low elevation coastal zones. Environment & Urbanization, 19, 17-37.
104. Melosi, M.V. (2001). Effluent America: Cities, industry, energy, and the environment. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press.
105. Melosi, M.V. (2010). Humans, cities, and nature: How do cities fit in the material world? Journal of Urban History, 36, 3-21.
106. Mol, A.P.J. (1997). Ecological modernization: Industrial transformations and environmental reform. In M. Redclift & G. Woodgate (Eds.), The international handbook of environmental sociology (pp. 138-149). Cheltenham, England: Edward Elgar.
107. Molotch, H. (1970). Oil in Santa Barbara and power in America. Sociological Inquiry, 40, 131-144.
108. Molotch, H. (1976). The city as a growth machine: Toward a political economy of place. American Journal of Sociology, 82, 309-332.
109. Montgomery, M.R. (2008). The urban transformation of the developing world. Science, 319, 761-764.
110. Montgomery, M.R., Stren, R., Cohen, B., & Reed, H.E. (2003). Cities transformed: Demographic change and its implications in the developing world. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
111. Morello, J., Buzai, G.D., Baxendale, C.A., Rodríguez, A.F., Matteucci, S.D., Godagnone, R.E., & Casas, R.R. (2000). Urbanization and the consumption of fertile land and other ecological changes: The case of Buenos Aires. Environment & Urbanization, 12, 119-131.
112. Mumford, L. (1961). The city in history: Its origins, its transformations, and its prospects. New York, NY: Harcourt, Brace & World.
113. Mumford, L. (1974). The highway and the city. In R. T. Roelofs, J. N. Crowley, & D. L. Hardesty (Eds.), Environment and society: A book of readings on environmental policy, attitudes and values (pp. 208-219). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
114. Murphy, R. (2002). Ecological materialism and the sociology of Max Weber. In R. E. Dunlap, F. H. Buttel, P. Dickens, & A. Gijswijt (Eds.), Sociological theory and the environment: Classical foundations, contemporary insights (pp. 73-89). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
115. Newman, P. (1996). Reducing automobile dependence. Environment & Urbanization, 8, 67-92.
116. Newman, P. (2006). The environmental impact of cities. Environment & Urbanization, 18, 275-295.
117. O'Connor, J. (1988). Capitalism, nature, socialism: A theoretical introduction. Capitalism, Nature, Socialism, 1, 11-38.
118. O'Connor, J. (1998). Natural causes: Essays in ecological Marxism. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
119. Pais, J.F., & Elliott, J.R. (2008). Places as recovery machines: Vulnerability and neighborhood change after major hurricanes. Social Forces, 86, 1415-1453.
120. Park, R.E., & Burgess, E.W. (1967). The city. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. (Original work published 1925).
121. Pebley, A.R. (1998). Demography and the environment. Demography, 35, 377-389.
122. Pellow, D.N. (2004). Garbage wars: The struggle for environmental justice in Chicago. Cambridge: MIT Press.
123. Perrow, C. (2007). The next catastrophe: Reducing our vulnerabilities to natural, industrial, and terrorist disasters. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
124. Pinderhughes, R. (2004). Alternative urban futures: Planning for sustainable development in cities throughout the world. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
125. Platt, H.L. (2007). From Hygeia to the Garden City: Bodies, houses, and the rediscovery of the slum in Manchester, 1875-1910. Journal of Urban History, 33, 756-772.
126. Ponting, C. (2007). A new green history of the world: The environment and the collapse of great civilizations. New York, NY: Penguin Books.
127. Popenoe, D., & Michelson, W. (2002). Macro-environments and people: Cities, suburbs, and metropolitan areas. In R. E. Dunlap & W. Michelson (Eds.), Handbook of environmental sociology (pp. 137-166). Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
128. Pryor, R. (1968). Defining the rural-urban fringe. Social Forces, 47, 202-215.
129. Rees, W.E. (1992). Ecological footprints and appropriated carrying capacity: What urban economics leaves out. Environment & Urbanization, 4, 121-130.
130. Rees, W.E., & Wackernagel, M. (1996). Urban ecological footprints: Why cities cannot be sustainable and why they are a key to sustainability. Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 16, 223-248.
131. Rice, J. (2007). Ecological unequal exchange: Consumption, equity, and unsustainable structural relationships within the global economy. International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 48, 43-72.
132. Roberts, J.T., & Thanos, N.D. (2003). Trouble in paradise: Globalization and environmental crises in Latin America. New York, NY: Routledge.
133. Rodrigues, A.S.L., Ewers, R.M., Parry, L., Souza, C., Jr., Veríssimo, A., & Balmford, A. (2009). Boom-and-bust development patterns across the Amazon deforestation frontier. Science, 324, 1435-1437.
134. Rosen, C.M., & Tarr, J.A. (1994). The importance of an urban perspective in environmental history. Journal of Urban History, 20, 299-310.
135. Rudel, T.K. (2009). How do people transform landscapes? A sociological perspective on suburban sprawl and tropical deforestation. American Journal of Sociology, 115, 129-154.
136. Sassen, S. (2002). Locating cities on global circuits. Environment & Urbanization, 14, 13-30.
137. Sawyer, S. (2002). Gemeinschaft or /bust!/: Suburban sprawl, environmental degradation, and the new urbanism movement (Unpublished masters thesis). Washington State University, Washington, DC.
138. Scheinberg, A. (2003). The proof of the pudding: Urban recycling in North America as a process of ecological modernisation. Environmental Politics, 72, 49-75.
139. Scheinberg, A., & Anschütz, J. (2006). Slim pickin's: Supporting waste pickers in the ecological modernization of urban waste management systems. International Journal of Technology Management and Sustainable Development, 5, 257-270.
140. Schnaiberg, A. (1972). Environmental sociology and the division of labor (Unpublished manuscript), Northwestern University, Chicago.
141. Schnaiberg, A. (1980). The environment: From surplus to scarcity. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
142. Schwirian, K.P. (2006). The political ecology of plague in the global network of cities: The SARS epidemic of 2002-2003. Research in Urban Policy, 10, 241-268.
143. Sennett, R. (1970). A reply to Stein Weissenberger (1970) How cities grow. New York, NY: New York Review of Books. Retrieved from http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/1970/mar/12/how-cities-grow/.
144. Shandra, J., London, B., & Williamson, J.B. (2003). Environmental degradation, environmental sustainability, and overurbanization in the developing world: A quantitative, cross-national analysis. Sociological Perspectives, 46, 309-329.
145. de Sherbinin, A., Carr, D., Cassels, S., & Jiang, L. (2007a). Population and environment. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 32, 345-373.
146. de Sherbinin, A., Schiller, A., & Pulsipher, A. (2007b). The vulnerability of global cities to climate hazards. Environment & Urbanization, 19, 39-64.
147. Sjoberg, G. (1955). The preindustrial city. American Journal of Sociology, 60, 438-445.
148. Smil, V. (1994). Energy in world history. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
149. Smith, N. (2008). Uneven development: Nature, capital, and the production of space. Athens: University of Georgia Press.
150. Sorokin, P., & Zimmerman, C.C. (1929). Principles of rural-urban sociology. New York, NY: Henry Holt.
151. Stephens, C. (1996). Healthy cities or unhealthy islands? The health and social implications of urban inequality. Environment & Urbanization, 8, 9-30.
152. Tarr, J.A. (2002). The metabolism of the industrial city: The case of Pittsburgh. Journal of Urban History, 28, 511-545.
153. Tisdale, H. (1942). The process of urbanization. Social Forces, 20, 311-316.
154. U.S. Census Bureau. (2008). Census 2000 urban and rural classification. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved from http://www.census.gov/geo/www./ua/ua_2k.html.
155. U.S. Department of Agriculture. (2004). Measuring rurality: Rural-urban continuum codes. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved from http://www.ers.usda.gov/briefing/rurality/ruralurbcon/.
156. Wackernagel, M., Kitzes, J., Moran, D., Goldfinger, S., & Thomas, M. (2006). The ecological footprint of cities and regions. Environment & Urbanization, 18, 103-112.
157. Walker, R.A. (2007). The country in the city: The greening of the San Francisco Bay area. Seattle: University of Washington Press.
158. Weber, M. (1968). The city. New York, NY: Free Press.
159. Weinberg, A.S., Pellow, D.N., & Schnaiberg, A. (2000). Urban recycling and the search for sustainable community development. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
160. Williams, R. (1973). The country and the city. London, England: Hogarth Press.
161. Wilson, F.D. (1984). Urban ecology: Urbanization and systems of cities. Annual Review of Sociology, 10, 283-307.
162. Wirth, L. (1938). Urbanism as a way of life. American Journal of Sociology, 44, 1-24.
163. Worldwatch Institute. (2007). State of the world 2007: Our urban future. Washington, DC: Author.
164. York, R. (2006). Ecological paradoxes: William Stanley Jevons and the paperless office. Human Ecology Review, 13, 143-147.
165. York, R. (2008). De-carbonization in former Soviet Republics, 1992-2000: The ecological consequences of de-modernization. Social Problems, 55, 370-390.
166. York, R., & Gossard, M.H. (2004). Cross-national meat and fish consumption: Exploring the effects of modernization and ecological context. Ecological Economics, 8, 293-302.
167. York, R., & Rosa, E.A. (2007). Environment and urbanization. In G. Ritzer (Ed.), The Blackwell encyclopedia of sociology (Vol. III, pp. 1423-1426). Oxford, England: Blackwell.
168. York, R., Rosa, E.A., & Dietz, T. (2003a). A rift in modernity? Assessing the anthropogenic sources of global climate change with the STIRPAT model. International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, 23, 31-51.
169. York, R., & Rosa, E.A., & Dietz, T. (2003b). Footprints on the earth: The environmental consequences of modernity. American Sociological Review, 68, 279-300.