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Volumn 33, Issue 5, 2007, Pages 794-812

The nitrogen question: Urbanization, industrialization, and river quality in Paris, 1830-1939

Author keywords

Fertilizer; Nitrogen; Sewage; Water quality; Water treatment

Indexed keywords

FERTILIZER; INDUSTRIAL WASTE; INDUSTRIALIZATION; NITROGEN; SEWAGE; URBAN HISTORY; URBANIZATION; WATER QUALITY; WATER TREATMENT;

EID: 34347204516     PISSN: 00961442     EISSN: 15526771     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0096144207301421     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (33)

References (78)
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    • (New York: Praeger) Joel Tarr, "From City to Farm: Urban Wastes and the American Farmer," Agricultural History 49 (1975): 598-612; Christopher Hamlin, "Sewage: Waste or Resource? A Historical Perspective," Environment 22 (1980): 16 - 20, 38 - 42; Richard A. Wines, Fertilizer in America: From Waste Recycling to Resource Exploitation (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1985); Nicholas Goddard, "' A Mine of Wealth?' The Victorians and Agricultural Value of Sewage, "Journal of Historical Geography 22 (1996): 274-90; John Sheail," Town Wastes, Agricultural Sustainability and Victorian Sewage, "Urban History 23 (1996): 189-210; Nicholas Goddard and John Sheail," Victorian Sanitary Reform: Where Were the Innovators?," in Bernhadt, Environmental Problems, 87-103
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    • "Everything Circulates: Agricultural Chemistry and Recycling Theories in the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century"
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    • Erland Marald, "Everything Circulates: Agricultural Chemistry and Recycling Theories in the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century," Environment and History 8 (2002): 65-84; Sabine Barles, La ville délètère: Mé;decins et ingénieurs dans l'espace urbain, XVIIIe-XIXe siècle (Seyssel: Champ Vallon, 1999), 63-70.
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    • "Experts and Water Quality in Paris in 1870"
    • For more details on surface water analysis in France during the second half of the nineteenth century, see in Dieter Schott, Bill Luckin, and Geneviève Massard-Guilbaud, eds. (Aldershot: Ashgate)
    • For more details on surface water analysis in France during the second half of the nineteenth century, see Laurence Lestel, "Experts and Water Quality in Paris in 1870," in Dieter Schott, Bill Luckin, and Geneviève Massard-Guilbaud, eds., Resources of the City: Contributions to an Environmental History of Modern Europe (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2005), 203 - 14.
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  • 12
    • 34347269427 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In this case, household water does not include water from privies collected in cesspools. Arnould
    • In this case, household water does not include water from privies collected in cesspools. Arnould, Nouveaux éléments d'hygiène, 152.
    • Nouveaux Éléments D'hygiène , pp. 152
  • 13
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    • The figures for Paris alone are 580,000 inhabitants in 1806; 1,053,000 in 1851; and 2,710,000 in 1901. (Paris)
    • The figures for Paris alone are 580,000 inhabitants in 1806; 1,053,000 in 1851; and 2,710,000 in 1901. Paroisses et communes de France: Région parisienne (Paris, 1974).
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    • 34347229626 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For details on the lives of Boussingault and Payen, see Claudine Fontanon and André Grelon, eds. (Paris: INPG-CNAM, 1994), s.v. "Boussingault" by Jean Boulaine and "Payen" by Pierre Vigreux. Boussingault and Payen published their results in the Annales de chimie et de physique and in the Comptes-rendus de l'académie des sciences between 1836 and 1842. The table was also published in Anselme Payen, Précis de chimie industrielle (Paris, 1849)
    • For details on the lives of Boussingault and Payen, see Claudine Fontanon and André Grelon, eds., Les professeurs du Conservatoire National des Arts et Métiers: Dictionnaire biographique, 1794-1955 (Paris: INPG-CNAM, 1994), s.v. "Boussingault" by Jean Boulaine and "Payen" by Pierre Vigreux. Boussingault and Payen published their results in the Annales de chimie et de physique and in the Comptes-rendus de l'académie des sciences between 1836 and 1842. The table was also published in Anselme Payen, Précis de chimie industrielle (Paris, 1849).
    • Les Professeurs Du Conservatoire National Des Arts Et Métiers: Dictionnaire Biographique, 1794-1955
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    • Chimie appliquée à la physiologie végétale et ̀ l'agriculture
    • translated by C. Gerhardt, 2nd ed. (Paris: Fortin, Masson)
    • Justus von Liebig, Chimie appliquée à la physiologie végétale et ̀ l'agriculture, translated by C. Gerhardt, 2nd ed. (Paris: Fortin, Masson, 1844), 244-73.
    • (1844) , pp. 244-273
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    • 34347208534 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • "Mémoire sur les engrais," Annales de chimie et de physique, Ser. 36 (1842): 450
    • Jean-Baptiste Boussingault and Anselme Payen, "Mémoire sur les engrais," Annales de chimie et de physique, Ser. 36 (1842): 450.
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    • "Sels ammoniacaux délaissés comme engrais par l'agriculture française"
    • Mallet obtained a patent for the processing of ammoniated waters. The apparatus he devised was used in his own gas factory at La Villette (near Paris)
    • Alfred Mallet, "Sels ammoniacaux délaissés comme engrais par l'agriculture française," Comptes-rendus de l'académie des sciences 51 (1860): 102-4. Mallet obtained a patent for the processing of ammoniated waters. The apparatus he devised was used in his own gas factory at La Villette (near Paris).
    • (1860) Comptes-rendus De L'académie Des Sciences , vol.51 , pp. 102-104
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    • "Engrais"
    • Boussingault, who lived in South America between 1822 and 1832, was one of the first to speak about Peruvian sodium nitrate reserves. See
    • Boussingault, who lived in South America between 1822 and 1832, was one of the first to speak about Peruvian sodium nitrate reserves. See Théophile Petit, "Engrais," Annales et archives de l'industrie du XIXe siècle 2 (1878), 189.
    • (1878) Annales Et Archives De L'industrie Du XIXe Siècle , vol.2 , pp. 189
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    • "M. Georges Ville: La théorie de la fertilité: Les engrais chimiques"
    • Ville was professor at the Paris Natural History Museum. See in (Paris) Philippe Jaussaud, Pharmaciens au Muséum (Paris: Éditions du Muséum national d'Histoire Naturelle, 1998), 161-68
    • Ville was professor at the Paris Natural History Museum. See Julien Turgan, "M. Georges Ville: La théorie de la fertilité: Les engrais chimiques," in Les grandes usines, vol. 12 (Paris, 1879); Philippe Jaussaud, Pharmaciens au Muséum (Paris: Éditions du Muséum national d'Histoire Naturelle, 1998), 161-68.
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  • 27
    • 34347222390 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Henri Joulie was the director of the Société Anonyme des Produits Chimiques Agricoles. Catalogs of this company for the years 1866-1880 can be consulted at the Bibliothèque Nationale de France. Joulie played a very active role in the French fertilizer commission, created in 1872. See
    • Henri Joulie was the director of the Société Anonyme des Produits Chimiques Agricoles. Catalogs of this company for the years 1866-1880 can be consulted at the Bibliothèque Nationale de France. Joulie played a very active role in the French fertilizer commission, created in 1872. See Jas, Au carrefour de la chimie et de l'agriculture, 298-99.
    • Au Carrefour De La Chimie Et De L'agriculture , pp. 298-299
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    • "Engrais"
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    • Louis Moll, "L'assainissement des villes par la fertilisation des campagnes," Annales du Conservatoire des arts et métiers 4 (1863): 353.
    • (1863) Annales Du Conservatoire Des Arts Et Métiers , vol.4 , pp. 353
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    • bk. 2, chap. 1; this translation from The Works of Victor Hugo (New York: Kelmscott Society, 1887), 3: 102-3
    • Victor Hugo, Les Misérables (1862), vol. 5, bk. 2, chap. 1; this translation from The Works of Victor Hugo (New York: Kelmscott Society, 1887), 3: 102-3.
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    • Principes d'assainissement des villes comprenant la description des principaux procédés employés dans les centres de population de l'Europe occidentale pour proteáger la santé publique
    • (Paris)
    • Charles de Freycinet, Principes d'assainissement des villes comprenant la description des principaux procédés employés dans les centres de population de l'Europe occidentale pour proteáger la santé publique (Paris, 1870), 161.
    • (1870) , pp. 161
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    • "Assainissement municipal: Quantité de matière azotée expulsée chaque jour de Paris"
    • Alfred Durand-Claye, "Assainissement municipal: Quantité de matière azotée expulsée chaque jour de Paris," Annales des ponts et chaussées 1 (1872): 410-12.
    • (1872) Annales Des Ponts Et Chaussées , vol.1 , pp. 410-412
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    • L'engrais humain: Histoire des applications de ce produit ̀ l'agriculture, aux arts industriels avec description des plus anciens procédés de vidanges et des nouvelles réformes, dans l'intérêt de l'hygiène
    • (Paris)
    • Maxime Paulet, L'engrais humain: Histoire des applications de ce produit ̀ l'agriculture, aux arts industriels avec description des plus anciens procédés de vidanges et des nouvelles réformes, dans l'intérêt de l'hygiène (Paris, 1853), 323.
    • (1853) , pp. 323
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  • 38
    • 34347266770 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The voirie de Bondy opened in 1818, and the voirie de Montfaucon closed in 1848
    • The voirie de Bondy opened in 1818, and the voirie de Montfaucon closed in 1848.
  • 39
    • 34347205472 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • "Entre artisanat et industrie: L'engrais humain ̀ Paris au XIXe siècle"
    • in Natacha Coquery, Liliane Hilaire-Perez, Dominique Massounie, and Virginie Serna, eds. (Paris: Société française d'histoire des sciences et des techniques)
    • Barles, "Entre artisanat et industrie: L'engrais humain ̀ Paris au XIXe siècle" in Natacha Coquery, Liliane Hilaire-Perez, Dominique Massounie, and Virginie Serna, eds., Artisans, industrie: Nouvelles révolutions du Moyen Âge à nos jours (Paris: Société française d'histoire des sciences et des techniques, 2004).
    • (2004) Artisans, Industrie: Nouvelles Révolutions Du Moyen Âge À Nos Jours
    • Barles1
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    • (Paris) See also Bernard Landau, "Techniciens parisiens et échanges internationaux," in André Lortie, ed., Paris s'exporte (Paris: Picard, 1995), 205-15
    • Mille, Mémoire sur le mode d'assainissement des villes en Angleterre (Paris, 1855). See also Bernard Landau, "Techniciens parisiens et échanges internationaux," in André Lortie, ed., Paris s'exporte (Paris: Picard, 1995), 205-15.
    • (1855) Mémoire Sur Le Mode D'assainissement Des Villes En Angleterre
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    • 34347228919 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Maine, Anjou, Touraine, Poitou, Flandre, Artois, Picardie, Île-de-France, passé et présent (Paris, 1888)
    • Henri Baudrillart, Les populations agricoles de la France, vol. 2, Maine, Anjou, Touraine, Poitou, Flandre, Artois, Picardie, Île-de-France, passé et présent (Paris, 1888), 622.
    • Les Populations Agricoles De La France , vol.2 , pp. 622
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    • See also Albert Larbalétrier, Les résidus industriels employés comme engrais, 2 vols. (Paris, 1896)
    • Ibid., 792. See also Albert Larbalétrier, Les résidus industriels employés comme engrais, 2 vols. (Paris, 1896).
    • Nouveaux Éléments D'hygir̀ne , pp. 792
    • Arnould, J.1
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    • (Paris) Pierre Lainé, untitled booklet (1849); Council Archives of Saint-Denis, CT1206
    • Pierre Lainé, L'agriculture avant tout (Paris, 1845); Pierre Lainé, untitled booklet (1849); Council Archives of Saint-Denis, CT1206.
    • (1845) L'agriculture Avant Tout
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    • "Sur la fabrication du sulfate d'ammoniaque ̀ l'aide des déchets azotés"
    • Louis-Désiré L'Hôte, "Sur la fabrication du sulfate d'ammoniaque ̀ l'aide des déchets azotés," Comptes-rendus de l'académie des sciences 76 (1873): 1085.
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    • "Les engrais minéraux en 1930"
    • In 1930, world production of nitrogen was twice its consumption
    • In 1930, world production of nitrogen was twice its consumption. Lucas, "Les engrais minéraux en 1930," Chimie et industrie 26 (1931): 1222.
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    • Lucas1
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    • L'assainissement des agglomérations
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    • Sewage farms in France did not disappear completely until the end of the twentieth century, however
    • Sewage farms in France did not disappear completely until the end of the twentieth century, however.
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    • série "Services de la direction générale des travaux de Paris"
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    • "Taux et rythme de disparition de la matiére organique au cours de l'épuration des eaux d'égout par le procédé des boues activées, note de MM. Paul Courmont, A. Rochaix et F. Laupin, présentée par M. Widal," Comptes-rendus de l'académie des sciences 173 (1921): 1199.
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    • "Time Series of Chlorides, Nitrates, Ammonium and Dissolved Oxygen Concentrations in the River Seine near Paris"
    • Research conducted by our colleague Christine Cun about the quality of the river Seine leads to the same results (downstream from Paris, increased ammonium and decreased oxygen content until the 1970s)
    • Research conducted by our colleague Christine Cun about the quality of the river Seine leads to the same results (downstream from Paris, increased ammonium and decreased oxygen content until the 1970s). Christine Cun and Roland Vilagines, "Time Series of Chlorides, Nitrates, Ammonium and Dissolved Oxygen Concentrations in the River Seine near Paris," Science of the Total Environment 208 (1997): 59-69.
    • (1997) Science of the Total Environment , vol.208 , pp. 59-69
    • Cun, C.1    Vilagines, R.2
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    • "A Metabolic Approach to the City: Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Paris"
    • in Dieter Schott, Bill Luckin, and Geneviève Massard-Guilbaud, eds. (Aldershot: Ashgate) 28-47. For preliminary results on the retrospective analysis of the Seine basin, see our research reports on the Internet at
    • Sabine Barles, "A Metabolic Approach to the City: Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Paris, "in Dieter Schott, Bill Luckin, and Geneviève Massard-Guilbaud, eds., Resources of the City: Contributions to an Environmental History of Modern Europe (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2005), 28-47. For preliminary results on the retrospective analysis of the Seine basin, see our research reports on the Internet at http://www.sisyphe.jussieu.fr/internet/piren.
    • (2005) Resources of the City: Contributions to an Environmental History of Modern Europe
    • Barles, S.1
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    • See, e.g. Robert U. Ayres and Leslie W. Ayres, eds. (Cheltenham: )Edward Elgar Peter Baccini and Paul H. Brunner, Metabolism of the Anthroposphere (Berlin: Springer, 1991); Stefan Bringezu, Marina Fischer-Kowalski, René Klein, and Victoria Palm, eds., Regional and National Material Flow Accounting: From Paradigm to Practice (Wuppertal: Wuppertal Institute for Climate, Environment and Energy, 1997); Marina Fischer-Kowalski," Society's Metabolism: The Intellectual History of Material Flow Analysis Part I, 1860-1970, "Journal of Industrial Ecology 2 (1999): 61-78; Marina Fischer-Kowalski and W. Hüttler," Society's Metabolism: The Intellectual History of Material Flow Analysis, Part II: 1970-1988," Journal of Industrial Ecology 2 (1999): 107-35
    • See, e.g., Robert U. Ayres and Leslie W. Ayres, eds., A Handbook of Industrial Ecology (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2002); Peter Baccini and Paul H. Brunner, Metabolism of the Anthroposphere (Berlin: Springer, 1991); Stefan Bringezu, Marina Fischer-Kowalski, René Klein, and Victoria Palm, eds., Regional and National Material Flow Accounting: From Paradigm to Practice (Wuppertal: Wuppertal Institute for Climate, Environment and Energy, 1997); Marina Fischer-Kowalski, " Society's Metabolism: The Intellectual History of Material Flow Analysis Part I, 1860-1970," Journal of Industrial Ecology 2 (1999): 61-78 Marina Fischer-Kowalski and W. Hüttler, "Society's; Metabolism: The Intellectual History of Material Flow Analysis, Part II: 1970-1988," Journal of Industrial Ecology 2 (1999): 107-35.
    • (2002) A Handbook of Industrial Ecology
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    • Starting in the eighteenth century, human fecal matter was collected throughout Paris and brought to Montfaucon (in north Paris), where it was left exposed to the air until it was converted by decantation, fermentation, and evaporation into a powder residue known as poudrette. See text
    • Starting in the eighteenth century, human fecal matter was collected throughout Paris and brought to Montfaucon (in north Paris), where it was left exposed to the air until it was converted by decantation, fermentation, and evaporation into a powder residue known as poudrette. See text.


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