Refugees, Europe, camps/state of exception: "Into the zone", the European Union and extraterritorial processing of migrants, refugees, and asylum-seekers (theories and practice)

Refugee Survey Quarterly

Volumn 29, Issue 1, 2010, Pages 92-119

  Levy, Carl ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ASYLUM SEEKER; EUROPEAN UNION; LIBERALIZATION; POLICY MAKING; POLITICAL HISTORY; REFUGEE;

AMSTERDAM [NORTH HOLLAND]; NETHERLANDS; NORTH HOLLAND;

EID: 77956164669     PISSN: 10204067     EISSN: 1471695X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/rsq/hdq013     Document Type: Article

References (190)

1. C. Levy, "European refugee and asylum policy after the Treaty of Amsterdam: The birth of a new regime?", in A. Bloch and C. Levy (eds.), Refugees, Citizenship and Social Policy in Europe, Basingstoke, Macmillan, 1999, 12-50.
2. C. Levy, "The Geneva Convention and the European Union: A fraught relationship", in J. van Selm, K. Kamamga, J. Morrison, A. Nadig, S. Spoljar Virinza, and L. van Willigen (eds.), The Refugee Convention at 50: A View from Migration Studies, Lanham, MD, Lexington Books, 2003, 129-44.
3. C. Levy, "The European Union after 9/11: The demise of a liberal democratic asylum regime?", Government and Opposition, 40(1), 2005, 26-59.
4. One of the best recent treatments of the Far Right in Europe is C. Mudde's Populist Radical Right Parties in Europe, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2007.
5. N. Steiner, Arguing about Asylum. The Complexity of Refugee Debates in Europe, Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan, 2002.
6. L. Schuster, The Use and Abuse of Political Asylum in Britain and Germany, London, Frank Cass, 2003.
7. M. Gibney, The Ethics and Politics of Asylum: Liberal Responses to Refugees, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2005.
8. C. Boswell, The Ethics of Refugee Policy, Aldershot, Ashgate, 2005.
9. C. Boswell, "Theorizing migration policy: Is there a third way?", International Migration Review, 41(1), 2007, 75-100.
10. F. Bicchi and M. Martin, "Talking tough or talking together? European security discourses towards the Mediterranean", Mediterranean Politics, 11(2), 2006, 189-207.
11. M. Collyer, "Migrants, migration and the security paradigm: Constraints and opportunities", Mediterranean Politics, 11(2), 2006, 255-70.
12. C. Boswell, "Migration control in Europe after 9/11: Explaining the absence of securitization", Journal of Common Market Studies, 45(3), 2007, 589-610.
13. R. Dower, "Towards a common EU immigration policy: A securitarization too far?", European Integration, 30(1), 2008, 113-30.
14. R. Bermejo, "Migration and security in the EU: Back to Fortress Europe?", Journal of Contemporary European Research, 5(2), 2009, 207-24.
15. C. Kaunert, "Liberty versus security? EU asylum policy and the European Commission", Journal of Contemporary European Research, 5(2), 2009, 148-70.
16. The migration-development nexus emphasizes the economically beneficial relationship between the EU and the Global South of circular migration, diaspora networks, remittances, and skill development of returnees to the Global South ("brain gain"). Refugees and asylum-seekers can be placed within this rubric sociologically through the concept of mixed flows, but the legal autonomy of the 1951 Refugee Convention can be compromised as a result.
17. See, D. Styan, "Security of Africans beyond borders: Migration, remittances and London's transnational entrepreneurs", International Affairs, 83(6), 2007, 1171-91.
18. S. Lavenex and R. Kunz, "The migration-development nexus in EU external relations", European Integration, 30(3), 2008, 439-57.
19. M.-H. Chou, "The Migration-Development Nexus, the European Union and circular migration", Paper presented at the ISA-ABRI Joint International Meeting Diversity and Inequality in World Politics, Rio de Janeiro, 22-24 Jul. 2009.
20. V. Guiraudon, "Before the EU border: Remote control of the 'Huddled Masses'", in K. Groendijk, E. Guild, and P. Minderhoud (eds.), In Search of Europe's Borders, London, Kluwer Law International, 2002, 191-214.
21. J. Hyndman, "Preventive, palliative or punitive? Safe spaces in Bosnia-Herzegovina, Somalia and Sri Lanka", Journal of Refugee Studies, 16(2), 2003, 167-85.
22. Neo-refoulement means the package of non-entrée policies (safe third countries, pre-screening, the farming out of border controls to the private sector, extra-territorialization, etc.) that prevents spontaneous and mass flows from reaching borders of countries to claim asylum.
23. See J. Hyndman and A. Mountz, "Another brick in the wall? Neo-Refoulement and the externalization of asylum by Australia and Europe", Government and Opposition, 43(2), 2008, 249-69.
24. For the privatization of migration control, see G. Menz, "Outsourcing migration control: The rise of private actors in the enforcement and design of migration policy", paper presented at the European Consortium for Political Research, 5th General Conference, Potsdam, 10-12 Sept. 2009.
25. A. Mountz, "Islands as an enforcement archipelago: Off-Shore migration processing, graduated sovereignty and borders", paper presented at the meeting of the International Studies Association, 50th Annual Convention, New York, 15 Feb. 2009.
26. T. Balzacq and S. Carrera, "The Hague Programme: The long road to freedom, security and justice", in T. Balzacq and S. Carrera (eds.), Security versus Freedom? A Challenge for Europe's Future, Aldershot, Ashgate, 2006, 3-32.
27. M. Garlick, "The EU discussion on extraterritorial processing: Solution or conundrum?", International Journal of Refugee Law, 18(3), 2006, 629.
28. M.-T. Gil-Bazo, "The practice of Mediterranean states in the context of the European Union's Justice and Home Affairs external dimension. The Safe Third Country concept revisited", International Journal of Refugee Law, 18(3-4), 2006, 571-604.
29. A. Betts, "Towards a Mediterranean Solution? Implications for the region of origin", International Journal of Refugee Law, 18(3-4), 2006, 652-76.
30. S. Wolff, "Border management in the Mediterranean: Internal, external and ethical challenges", Cambridge Review of International Affairs, 21(2), 2008, 253-71.
31. S. Buckel and J. Wissel, "State Project Europe: The transformation of the European border regime and the production of bare life", International Political Sociology, 4(1), 2010, 22-49.
32. Supranational intergovernmentalism is the structured communitarian behaviour, which Member States have assimilated in their policy-making as in the case of Frontex that relies entirely on the sovereign assets (border guards, coast guards or navies) of Member States to carry out the policy.
33. See, S. Puntscher Riekmann, "Security, freedom and accountability: Europol and Frontex", in E. Guild and F. Geyer (eds.), Security versus Justice? Police and Judicial Cooperation in the European Union, Aldershot, Ashgate, 2008, 19-34.
34. S. Leonard, "The creation of FRONTEX and the politics of institutionalization in the EU external borders policy", Journal of Contemporary European Research, 5(3), 2009, 371-88.
35. A. Neal, "Securitization and risk as the EU border: The origins of FRONTEX", Journal of Common Market Studies, 47(2), 2009, 333-56.
36. J. Pollak and P. Slominski, "Experimentalist but not accountable governance? The role of Frontex in managing the EU's external borders", West European Politics, 32(5), 2009, 904-24.
37. I. Boccardi, "EU practical co-operation on asylum and the European Asylum Support Agency", IASFM, 12, University of Nicosia, Cyprus, 29 Jun. 2009.
38. For an overview of the concept of the soft law concept of the open method of coordination, see A. Caviedes, Prying Open Fortress Europe: The Turn to Sectoral Labor Migration, Lanham, MD., Lexington Books, 2010.
39. For an overview of soft law see, A. Betts, "Towards a soft law framework for the protection of vulnerable irregular migrants", IASFM, University of Nicosia, 28 Jun. to 2 Jul. 2009.
40. For an overview of the literature, addressed in this paragraph, see G. Noll, J. Fagerlund and F. Liebaut, Study on the Feasibility of Processing Asylum Claims Outside the EU against the Background of the Common European Asylum System and the Goal of a Common Asylum Procedure, The Danish Centre for Human Rights, Copenhagen, 2002.
41. G. Noll, "Visions of the exceptional: legal and theoretical issues raised by Transit Processing Centres and Protection Zones", European Journal of Migration and Law, 5(3), 2003, 301-41.
42. A. Betts, "The international relations of the 'new' extraterritorial approaches to refugee protection: Explaining the policy initiatives of the UK government and the UNHCR", Refuge, 12(1), 2004, 58-70.
43. S. Lavenex, "EU governance in 'wider Europe', Journal of European Public Policy, 11(4), 2004, 668-700.
44. K. F. Afeef, "The politics of extraterritorial processing: Offshore asylum policies in Europe and the Pacific", RSC Working Paper, No. 36, Oxford, Refugee Studies Centre, Oct. 2006.
45. S. Debenedetti, "Externalization of European asylum and migration polices", 2nd Session of the Florence School on Euro-Meditarranean Migration and Development, 15-30 Jun. 2006, European University Institute, Robert Schuman Centre of Advanced Studies; 2006.
46. P. Green, "State crime beyond borders: Europe and the outsourcing of irregular migration control", in S. Pickering and L. Weber (eds.), Borders, Mobility and Technologies of Control, Dordrecht, Springer, 2006, 149-66.
47. S. Kneebone, C. McDowel, and G. Morrell, "Mediterranean Solution? Chances of success", International Review of Refugee Law, 18(3-4), 2006, 492-508.
48. S. Kneebone, "The Pacific Plan: The provision of 'effective protection'?", International Journal of Refugee Law, 18(3-4), 2006, 696-721.
49. S. Lavenex, "Shifting up and out: The foreign policy of the European immigration control", West European Politics, 29(2), 2006, 329-50.
50. S. Kneebone and S. Pickering, "Australia, Indonesia and the Pacific Plan", in S. Kneebone and F. Rawlings-Sanaei (eds.), New Regionalism and Asylum Seekers, New York, Berghahn, 2007, 167-88.
51. T. Gammeltoft-Hansen, "The extra-territorialization of asylum and the advent of 'protection lite'", Dansk Institut for Internationale Studiier Working Paper no. 2007/2, Copenhagen, 2007.
52. A. Francis, "Bringing protection home: Healing the schism between international obligations and national safeguards created by extraterritorial processing", International Review of Refugee Law, 20(2), 2008, 273-313.
53. A. Geddes, "Migration as foreign policy? The external dimension of EU action on migration and asylum", Stockholm, Swedish Institute for European Policy Studies, 2009, 2.
54. C. Thorez and F. Channac, "Shaping international migration policy: The role of regional consultative processes", West European Politics, 29(2), 2006, 370-87.
55. A. Niemann, "Dynamic and countervailing pressures of visa, asylum and immigration policy treaty revision: Explaining change and stagnation from the Amsterdam IGC to the IGC if 2003-04", Journal of Common Market Studies, 46(3), 2008, 559-91.
56. A. Betts, Protection by Persuasion: International Cooperation in the Refugee Regime, Ithaca, Cornell University Press, 2009.
57. A. Balch, Managing Labour Migration in Europe: Ideas, Knowledge and Policy, Manchester, Manchester University Press, 2010.
58. By the time negotiations were underway for the failed Constitutional Treaty and the successful Treaty of Lisbon, the British had already given up pressing this point and no other Member State objected to enshrining the 1951 Geneva Convention within Community Law.
59. See S. Lavenex, "Towards the constitutionalization of aliens' rights in the European Union?", Journal of European Public Policy, 13(8), 2006, 1292-3.
60. For mixed flows in the context of three overlapping travel, economic and refugee regimes, see A. Betts, "The refugee regime complex", in this issue.
61. There is a vast literature on the normative "soft power" of the EU.
62. See J. Checkel, "Norms, institutions and national identity in contemporary Europe", International Studies Quarterly, 43, 83-114.
63. I. Manners, "Normative power Europe: A contradiction in terms?", Journal of Common Market Studies, 40(2), 2002, 235-58.
64. I. Manners, "The normative ethics of the European Union", International Affairs, 84(1), 2008, 46-60.
65. The concept of the state of exception and the work of Giorgio Agambem has been questioned since Gregor Noll's pioneering article was published in 2003.
66. See Agamben's State of Exception, Chicago, University of Chicago, 2004.
67. This approach was reinforced by the simultaneous rediscovery of the work of Hannah Arendt on the fate of the refugee in the mid-twentieth century and the use of the theoretical legacy of Michel Foucault to explain the increasing restrictive management of migratory flows. There are significant differences between Agamben, Arendt, and Foucault.
68. The Refugee Studies Centre in Oxford also devoted an entire seminar series, entitled, "Camp Life: Exception, Emergence and Spaces of Forced Migration" (2007), to these new approaches.
69. The seminar included the following papers: B. Nielsen, "Policing the borders of politics: Camps in the global context".
70. N. Sigona, "The comfort of exceptionality: Roma coping strategies in nomad camps in Italy".
71. J. Edkins, "Missing, displaced, disappeared: Persons in a state of emergency".
72. M. Duffield, "Development and emergency: Containing the migratory effects of underdevelopment".
73. B. Diken, "From refugee camps to gated communities: A culture of exception".
74. And R. Andrijasevic, "From exception to excess: Re-reading detention and deportation in today's Europe".
75. The Stockholm Programme replaced the Hague Programme, which aimed to create a fully functioning CEAS, in 2010 and will continue through 2014.
76. For overviews of migration and European societies since 1945, see C.-U. Schierup, P. Hansen, and S. Castles, Migration, Citizenship and the European Welfare State. A European Dilemma, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2006.
77. C. A. Parsons and T. M. Smeeding, Immigration and the Transformation of Europe, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2006.
78. A. Messina, The Logics and Politics of Post-War Migration to Western Europe, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2007.
79. Constructivism is a social scientific methodology inspired by the post-modern turn in the humanities and the social sciences, which emphasizes the need to take seriously the worldviews and narratives constructed by policy-makers. Constructivism is suspicious of the objectivity of technocratic policy-making or what is found in the official archive, and imports the tools of post-modern literary criticism, psychoanalysis, and cultural history to understand how one policy wins acceptance in a given epistemic policy-making community.
80. See also A. Betts, Forced Migration and Global Politics, Chichester, Wiley-Blackwell, 2009, 18-43.
81. E. R. Thielemann and T. Dewan, "The myth of free-riding: Refugee protection and implicit burden-sharing", West European Politics, 29(2), 2006, 351-69.
82. A. Betts, "What does 'efficiency' mean in the context of the global refugee regime?", British Journal of Politics and International Relations, 8(2), 2006, 148-73.
83. See the critiques of R. C. Smith, "Outsourcing refugee protection responsibilities: The second life of an inconscionable idea", Journal of Transnational Law & Policy, 14(1), 2004, 137-53.
84. For a general discussion of the Kosovo crisis, see J. Van Selm-Thornburn (ed.), Kosovo's Refugees in the European Union, London, Continuum, 2000.
85. C. M. Skran, The International Refugee Regime and the Refugee Problem in Interwar Europe, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1995.
86. G. Loescher, The UNHCR and World Politics. A Perilous Path, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2001.
87. B. Cronin, Institutions of the Common Good: International Protection Regimes in International Society, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2003.
88. M. Mazower, "The strange triumph of human rights 1933-1950", Historical Journal, 47(2), 2004, 379-98.
89. E. Haddad, The Refugee in International Society, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2008.
90. st Century, London, Routledge, 2008.
91. M. Mazower, No Enchanted Palace. The End of Empire and the Ideological Origins of the United Nations, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 2009.
92. A. Hurwitz, The Collective Responsibility of States to Protect Refugees, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2009, 155-6.
93. P. Marfleet, Refugees in a Global Era, Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan, 2006, 161.
94. D. Bigo, "Security and immigration: Toward a critique of the governmentality of unease", Alternatives, 27, 2002, 63-92.
95. D. Bigo, "Security, exception, and surveillance", in D. Lyon (ed.), Theorizing Surveillance: The Panopticon and Beyond, London, Willan Publishing, 2006, 46-68.
96. D. Bigo, "Detention of foreigners, states of exception, and the social practices of control of the banopoticon", in P. K. Rajaram and C. Grundy-Warr (eds.), Borderscapes. Hidden Geographies and Politics at Territory's Edge, Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 2007, 3-33.
97. D. Bigo, "Globalized (in) Security. The field and the ban-opticon", in D. Bigo and A. Tsoukala (eds.), Terror, Insecurity and Liberty. Iliberal Practices of Liberal Regimes after 9/11, London, Routledge, 2008, 10-45.
98. See also related approaches by J. Huysmans, The Politics of Insecurity. Fear, Migration and Asylum in the EU, London, Routledge, 2006.
99. V. Squire, The Exclusionary Politics of Asylum, Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan, 2009.
100. R. Vans Munster, Securitizing Immigration. The Politics of Risk in the EU, Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan, 2009.
101. J. Stevens, "Prisons of the stateless. The derelictions of UNHCR", New Left Review, 42, 2006, 53-67.
102. I. Loader and N. Walker, Civilizing Security, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2007, 31, 91-3, 140, 258-64.
103. See the piercing critique of Agamben by P. Mesnard, "The political philosophy of Giorgio Agamben: A critical evaluation", Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions, 5(1), 2004, 139 (139-57).
104. J. Huysmans, "The jargon of exception-on Schmitt, Agamben and the absence of political society", International Political Sociology, 2(2), 2008, 177-8.
105. C. Dubernet, The International Containment of Displaced Persons: Humanitarian Spaces without Exit, Aldershot, Ashgate, 2001.
106. J. Snyder, "Realism, refugees, and strategies of humanitarianism", in A. Betts and G. Loescher (eds.), Refugees in International Politics, Oxford, Oxford University Press, forthcoming, 2011.
107. B. Diken and C. Bagge, The Culture of Exception: Sociology Facing the Camp, London, Routledge, 2005.
108. M. Mazower, "Foucault, Agamben: Theory and the Nazis", Boundary 2, 35(1), 2008, 23-34.
109. st Century, Cambridge, Polity Press, 2010, 25.
110. P. Nyers, "Taking rights, Mediating wrongs: Disagreement over the political agency of non-status refugees", in J. Huysmans, A. Dobson, and R. Prokhonik (eds.), The Politics of Protection. Sites of Insecurity and Political Agency, London, Routledge, 2006, 48-67.
111. R. Puggioni, "Resisting sovereign power: camps in-between exception and dissent".
112. P. Nyers, Rethinking Refugees beyond States of Emergency, London, Routledge, 2006.
113. V. Pupavic, "Refugee advocacy, traumatic representations and political disenchantment", Government and Opposition, 43(2), 2008, 270-92.
114. R. Andrijasevic, "From exception to excess: Detention and deportations across the Mediterranean space", in N. de Genova and N. Peutz (eds.), The Deportation Regime: Sovereignty, Space and the Freedom of Movement, Chapel Hill, Duke University Press, 2010.
115. S. K. Lischer, Dangerous Sanctuaries: Refugee Camps. Civil War, amd the Dilemma of Humanitarian Aid, Ithaca, Cornell University Press, 2005.
116. R. Wilde, International Territorial Administration. How Trusteeship and the Civilizing Mission Never Went Away, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2008, 61-2, 378-459.
117. A. Betts and J.-F. Durieux, "Convention Plus as a norm-setting exercise", Journal of Refugee Studies, 20(3), 2007, 509-35.
118. M. Zieck, "Doomed to fail from the outset? UNHCR's Convention Plus initiative revisited", International Review of Refugee Law, 21(3), 2009, 367-420.
119. See also G. Loescher and J. Milner, "The missing link: The need for a comprehensive engagement in regions of refugee origin", International Affairs, 79(3), 2003, 583-617.
120. E. Haddad, "The external dimension of EU refugee policy: A new approach to asylum?", Government and Opposition, 43(2), 2008, 190-205.
121. For an overview see, J. Milner, Refugees, the State and the Politics of Asylum in Africa, Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan, 2009, especially, 45, 52-3, 163, 171-77.
122. In certain cases, African States (Guinea) employed a cooperative policy to secure more aid from European partners, so long as the aid extended to the population beyond the encampments, 165. But the Kenyans were less cooperative: "We do not consider that Kenya should be the automatic or natural home for asylum-seekers and refugees from Somalia".
123. See also A. Betts and J. Milner, "The externalization of EU asylum policy: The position of the African states", Working Paper No. 36, Oxford, COMPAS, 2006.
124. R. Luubers, "Put an end to their wandering", The Guardian, 20 Jun. 2003, 5.
125. European Commission, "Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council on the establishment of a joint EU resettlement programme", Com (2009) 447 Final, 2 Sept. 2009, 6.
126. G. Menz, The Political Economy of Managed Migration: Non-State Actors, Europeanization and the Politics of Managing Migration, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2009.
127. J. van Selm, "Refugee Protection Policies and Security Issues", in E. Newman and J. van Selm (eds.), Refugees and Forced Displacement: International Security, Tokyo, United Nations University Press, 2003, 66-92.
128. A. Geddes, "Europe's borders relationship and international migration relations", Journal of Common Market Studies, 43(4), 2005, 787-806.
129. The Centre Right has sometimes prepared the ground for more radical proposals of the Far Right or has been influenced by the Far Right by competing for the same voters.
130. See T. Bale, "Turning around the telescope, centre-right parties and immigration and integration policy in Europe", Journal of European Public Policy, 15(3), 2006, 315-30.
131. There is vast literature on the roles of EU citizenship and/or EU legal space in constructing a new settlement based on shared human rights values. There is also radical academic literature which embraces open borders in Europe for regular and irregular migrants but would merely exacerbate the xenophobia already present.
132. See D. Spence, "The cosmopolitanization of the EU's borders", Portal. Journal of Multidisciplinary International Studies, 4(2), 2007, 1-17.
133. C. Finotelli, "The importance of being southern: The making of policies of immigration control in Italy", European Journal of Migration and Law, 11(2), 2009, 119-38.
134. C. Finotelli, "The North-South myth revised: A comparison of the Italian and German migration regimes", West European Politics, 32(5), 2009, 886-903.
135. A. Geddes, "Il rombo dei cannoni? Immigration and the centre-right in Italy", West European Politics, 15(3), 2006, 349-66.
136. E. Collett, "Beyond Stockholm: Overcoming the inconsistencies of immigration policy", EPC Working Paper No. 32, Brussels, European Policy Centre, Dec. 2009, 48.
137. A. Geddes, "Chronicle of a crisis foretold: The politics of smuggling in the UK", British Journal of Politics and International Relations, 7(3), 2005, 324-39.
138. G. Lahav and V. Guiraudon, "Actors and venues in immigration control: Closing the gap between political demands and policy outcomes, West European Politics, 29(2), 2006, 201-33.
139. A. Ellermann, "Street-level democracy: How immigration bureaucrats manage public opposition", West European Politics, 29(2), 2006, 293-309.
140. H. G. Sicakkan, "Political asylum and sovereignty-sharing in Europe", Government and Opposition, 43(2), 2008, 206-22.
141. For an overview of the CEAS in 2010, see A. Geddes, Beyond Fortress Europe, 2nd edn., Manchester, Manchester University Press, 2008, 131-8.
142. O. Ferguson Sidorenko, The Common European Asylum System. Background to the Current States of Affairs and Future Directions, The Hague, T.M.C. Asser, 2007.
143. S. Lavenex, "Justice and Home Affairs. Communitarization with Hesitation", in H. Wallace, M. A. Pollack and A. R. Young (eds.), Policy-making in the European Union, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2010, 457-77.
144. E. R. Thielemann, "The Effectiveness of Governments' Attempts to Control Unwanted Migration".
145. E. Guild and S. Carrera, "Towards the next phrase of the EU's Area of Freedom, Security and Justice: The European Commission's Proposal for the Stockholm Programme", the Centre for European Policy Studies Policy Brief No. 196, 20 Aug. 2009, 5.
146. "EU ready to accept 10,000 Iraqis", BBC News, 28 Nov. 2008.
147. S. Lavenex, "Mutual recognition and the monopoly of force: limits of the single market analogy", Journal of European Public Policy, 14(5), 2007, 765.
148. S. Peers, "Legislative update: EU immigration and asylum competence and decision-making in the Treaty of Lisbon", European Journal of Migration and Law, 10(2), 2008, 234-6.
149. European Union and European Parliament, "Towards a Common European Asylum System: Assessment and Proposals-Elements to be Implemented for the Establishment of an Efficient and Coherent System", Brussels, Sept. 2008, 1.
150. This was already noted as a universal trend in the West in the early 2000s.
151. See M. J. Gibney and R. Hanson, "Asylum policy in the West: Past trends, future possibilities", in G. J. Borjas and J. Crisp (eds.), Poverty, International Migrations and Asylum, Basingstoke, Macmillan Palgrave, 2005, 84.
152. E. Thielemann and N. El-Enamy, "Beyond Fortress Europe? How European cooperation strengthens refugee protection", Fifth General Conference of the ECPR, Potsdam, 10-12 Sept. 2009.
153. The improvement of asylum and refugee policy in part of the European Neighbourhood should also be noted: L. Feijin, "Facing the asylum-enlargement nexus: The establishment of asylum systems in the Western Balkans", International Journal of Refugee Law, 20(3), 2008, 413-31.
154. A more jaundiced view of the effects of the European legislation was advanced by Elspeth Guild: See "The Europeanization of Europe's asylum policy", International Journal of Refugee Law, 18(3-4), 2006, 630-51.
155. M. Gibney, "Asylum and the expansion of deportation in the United Kingdom", Government and Opposition, 43(2), 2008, 146-67.
156. For a discussion of Tampere, see I. Boccardi, Europe and Refugees: Towards an EU Asylum Policy, The Hague, Kluwer Law International, 2002, 175-80.
157. Migration News Sheet, Jul. 2003, 13.
158. D. Dombey, "UK asylum proposals draw mixed response", Financial Times, 29 Mar. 2003, 12.
159. A. Ellermann, "The limits of migration control: Deportation and inter-state cooperation", Government and Opposition, 43(2), 2008, 168-89.
160. For a critique of the mobility agreements, see R. Parkes, "EU mobility partnerships: A model of policy coordination?", European Journal of Migration and Law, 11(3), 2009, 327-45.
161. On the re-entry of Libya and their collaboration with the Italians in their push-back policy, see L. Martinez. "Libya: The conversion of a 'Terrorist State'", Mediterranean Politics, 11(2), 2006, 151-65.
162. R. Andrijasevic, "Lampedusa in focus: migrants caught between the Libyan desert and the deep blue sea", Feminist Review, 82(1), 2006, 120-5.
163. R. Andrijasevic, "How to balance rights and responsibilities on asylum at the EU's southern border of Italy and Libya", Working Paper No. 27, Oxford, COMPAS, 2006.
164. S. Hamood, "EU-Libya cooperation on migration: A raw deal for refugees and migrants?", Journal of Refugee Studies, 21(1), 2008, 19-42.
165. UNHCR, UNHCR Global Appeal, Geneva, UNHCR, 2010, 4-5.
166. C. Peregin, "Grounds for concern in Libya-UNHCR", Times of Malta.com, 24 Jan. 2010, available at: http://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20100124/local/grounds-for-concern-in-libya-unhcr (last accessed 20 May 2010).
167. UNHCR was expelled from Libya in June 2010 (see: "Libya 'expels' UN refugee agency UNHCR", BBC News Africa 8 June 2010, available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10264625 (last accessed 26 July 2010).
168. th Annual Convention, New York, 15-18 Feb. 2009.
169. H. de Haas, "Trans-Saharan Migration to North Africa and the EU: Historical Roots and Current Trends", Washington DC, Migration Policy Institute, 2006.
170. M. Collyer, "In-Between Places: Trans-Saharan transit migrants in Morocco and the fragmented journey to Europe", Antipode, 39(4), 2007, 668-90.
171. S. Mazzella, "Putting asylum to the test: Between immigration policy and co-development", in T. Fabre and P. Sant-Cassia (eds.), Between Europe and the Mediterranean. The Challenges and the Fears, Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan, 2005, 41-9.
172. H. M. Cross, "The EU migration regime and West African clandestine migrants", Journal of Contemporary European Research, 5(2), 2009, 171-87.
173. M. Carr, "The invisible people of Oujda", The New York Times as reproduced in The Observer, 2 May 2010, 3.
174. K. de Vries, "An assessment of 'Protection in Regions of Origin' in relation to European asylum law", European Journal of Migration and Law, 9(1), 2007, 83-103.
175. C. Boswell, European Migration Policies in Flux: Changing Patterns of Inclusion and Exclusion, Oxford, Blackwell, 2003, 37-41.
176. G. Noll, "Safeguard asylum", in UNHCR, The State of the World's Refugee 2006: Human Displacement in the New Millennium, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2006, 38-9.
177. European Commission, "Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council on the establishment of a joint EU resettlement programme", COM (2009) 447 Final, 2 Sept. 2009.
178. UHHCR-Government of Romania-IOM-OIM-EU, "The Emergency Transit Centre in Romania," 9 Jul. 2009.
179. For discussions of the Treaty of Lisbon and its possible effects, see R. Crowe, "The Treaty of Lisbon: A revised legal framework for the organization and function of the European Union", ERA Forum, 9, 2008, 163-208.
180. S. Peers, "Legislative update: EU immigration and asylum competence and decision-making in the Treaty of Lisbon", European Journal of Migration and Law, 10(2), 2008, 219-47.
181. S. Kessler, "The Lisbon Treaty and the European asylum and migration policies", Information Note 4, Brussels, Jesuit Refugee Service-Europe, Nov. 2009.
182. C. Reh, "The Lisbon Treaty: De-constitutionalizing the European Union?, Journal of Common Market Studies, 47(1), 2009, 625-50.
183. This does not mean that the political and sociological factors comprising the EU's migration regime will mitigate this outcome. As Parsons and Smeeding remind us, the EU's "combination of 'nativist' national identities, established minorities, and quasi-federal government make political solutions particularly difficult to elaborate".
184. See C. A. Parsons and T. M. Smeeding, "What's unique about immigration in Europe?".
185. A. Fischer-Lescano, T. Löhr and T. Tohidpur, "Border controls at sea: Requirements under international humans rights and refugee law", International Journal of Refugee Law, 21(2), 2009, 256-96.
186. M.-B. Dembour, Who Believes in Human Rights? Reflections on the European Convention, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2006, 26, 142, 180, 274-5.
187. J. Pirjola, "European asylum policy-inclusions and exclusions under the surface of universal human rights languages", European Journal of Migration and Law, 11(4), 2009, 347.
188. J. Huysmans, "Minding exceptions: The politics of insecurity and liberal democracy", Contemporary Political Theory, 3(3), 2004, 321-41.
189. Although the concept of human security may be a useful rhetorical flourish it may be problematic for asylum and refugee policy.
190. See A. Hammerstad, "The Securitzation of Forced Migration and its Impact on the International Refugee Regime", ISA, 50th Annual Convention, New York, 16 Feb. 2009.