No enchanted palace: The end of empire and the ideological origins of the United Nations

No Enchanted Palace: The End of Empire and the Ideological Origins of the United Nations

Volumn , Issue , 2009, Pages 1-236

  Mazower, Mark ^a  

^a Och Spine at New York Presbyterian Hospitals   (United States)

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References (344)

1. B. Boutros-Ghali, "Empowering the United Nations," Foreign Affairs 71:6 (winter 1992-93): 89-102.
2. cf. B. Russett and J. S. Sutterlin, "The UN in a New World Order," Foreign Affairs 70:2 (spring 1991): 69-83.
3. "An Agenda for Peace: Preventive Diplomacy, Peacemaking, and Peace-keeping," Report of the Secretary-General Pursuant to the Statement Adopted by the Summit Meeting of the Security Council on 31 January 1992, UN document A/47/277 - S/24111, 17 June 1992.
4. For an insightful critical analysis of the entire reform debate, see Hans-Martin Jaeger, "UN Reform, Biopolitics, and Global Governmentality," unpublished paper. My thanks to Professor Jaeger for allowing me to see this.
5. For one of the starting points, see G. John Ikenberry and Anne- Marie Slaughter, Forging a World of Liberty under the Law: U.S. National Security in the 21st Century, Final Report of the Princeton Project on National Security (Princeton, 2006), which included a draft "Charter for a Concert of Democracies." The literature on a democratic peace begins with Michael Doyle, "Kant, Liberal Legacies, and Foreign Affairs," Philosophy and Public Affairs 12:3 (summer 1983): 205-35; and 12:4 (October 1983): 325-53.
6. See, too, Doyle, "Three Pillars of the Liberal Peace," American Political Science Review 99:3 (August 2005): 463-66.
7. Michael J. Glennon, "Why the Security Council Failed," Foreign Affairs 82:3 (May/June 2003).
8. A. Grigorescu, "Mapping the UN-League of Nations Analogy: Are There Still Lessons to Be Learned from the League?" Global Governance 11 (2005): 25-42.
9. cf. Akira Iriye, Global Community: The Role of International Organizations in the Making of the Modern World (California, 2002).
10. For a pithy if partial historicization of the concept of internationalism, see P. Anderson, "Internationalism: A Breviary," New Left Review 14 (Mar.-Apr. 2002).
11. Two outstanding exceptions are R. Hilderbrand, Dumbarton Oaks: The Origins of the United Nations and the Search for Postwar Security (Chapel Hill, 1990).
12. B. Urquhart, Ralph Bunche: An American Life (New York, 1993).
13. A new wave of historical interest is presaged by: S. Amrith and G. Sluga, "New Histories of the United Nations," Journal of World History 19:3 (Sept. 2008): 251-74 and the subsequent articles in that volume.
14. J. Winter, Dreams of Peace and Freedom: Utopian Moments in the 20th Century (New Haven, 2006).
15. Among the works in this vein are S. Schlesinger, Act of Creation: The Founding of the United Nations (New York, 2003).
16. M. A. Glendon, A World Made New: Eleanor Roosevelt and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (New York, 2001).
17. E. Borgwardt, A New Deal for the World: America's Vision for Human Rights (Cambridge, MA, 2005).
18. Paul Kennedy, The Parliament of Man: The Past, Present, and Future of the United Nations (New York, 2006).
19. Samantha Power, A Problem from Hell: America and the Age of Genocide (New York, 2002).
20. J. Cooper, Raphael Lemkin and the Struggle for the Genocide Convention (London, 2008).
21. The UN Intellectual History Project has led to the publication of nine volumes, of varying quality: perhaps the best are J. Toye and R. Toye, eds., The UN and Global Political Economy: Trade, Finance, and Development (Indiana, 2004).
22. R. Normand and S. Zaidi, eds., Human Rights at the UN: The Political History of Universal Justice (Indiana, 2008).
23. P. A. Reynolds and E. J. Hughes, eds., The Historian as Diplomat: Charles Kingsley Webster and the United Nations, 1939-1946 (London, 1976), 69-71.
24. K. Sellars, The Rise and Rise of Human Rights (Stroud, Gloucestershire, UK, 2002), 8-10.
25. Samuel Moyn, "On the Genealogy of Morals," The Nation (16 April 2007).
26. A. Brian Simpson, Human Rights and the End of Empire: Britain and the Genesis of the European Convention (Oxford, 2001).
27. M. Mazower, "The Strange Triumph of Human Rights: 1933-1950," Historical Journal 47:2 (2004): 379-98. The history of human rights movements in the 20th century also formed the subject of a conference held in 2008 at the Social Science Research Center, Berlin: a report is available online at http://hsozkult.geschichte.hu-berlin.de/tagungsberichte/id=2208&count=122&recno=8&sort=datum&order=down&geschichte=79.
28. For a recent scathing critique from within the field, see R. N. LeBow, A Cultural Theory of International Relations (Cambridge, 2008).
29. which offers a pointed analysis of these shortcoming before posing an alternative highly idiosyncratic framework based on permanent cultural and psychological values first supposedly articulated by the ancient Greeks. This theory seems much less useful than the critique: those outside IR may feel it demonstrates that the real problem is looking for "theories" in this area the first place. For those wishing to explore the still underresearched history of American social science after 1945, P. Mirowski, Machine Dreams: Economics Becomes a Cyborg Science (Cambridge, 2002) is indispensable.
30. See, too, D. Green and J. Shapiro, Pathologies of Rational Choice Theory: A Critique of Applications in Political Science (New Haven, CT, 1994).
31. N. Guilhot, "The Realist Gambit: Postwar American Political Science and the Birth of IR Theory," International Political Sociology 2:4 (Dec. 2008): 281-304.
32. Kennan's comments in G. Kennan, Memoirs, 1925-1950 (New York, 1967), 229-32.
33. J. G. Ruggie, Constructing the World Polity: Essays on International Institutionalization (London, 1998), 212-13.
34. cf. Perry Anderson, "Our Man," (a review of James Traub, The Best of Intentions: KofiAnnan and the UN in the Era of American World Power, and S. Meisler, KofiAnnan: A Man of Peace in a World of War) London Review of Books (10 May 2007).
35. For insightful comments on the analytical problems, see J. G. Ruggie, Constructing the World Polity: Essays on International Institutionalization (London, 1998).
36. P. Wilson, "The Twenty Years' Crisis and the Category of 'Idealism' in International Relations," in Thinkers of the Twenty Years' Crisis: Interwar Idealism Revisited, ed. Long and Wilson (Oxford, 1995), 1-25. One would not, of course, want to ignore the role of political scientists such as Inis Claude in analyzing international institutions in the early postwar decades. But their impact on international relations theory was slight.
37. G. John Ikenberry, After Victory: Institutions, Strategic Restraint, and the Rebuilding of Order after Major Wars (Princeton, 2001).
38. Liberal Order and Imperial Ambition (London, 2006).
39. Doubts about the UN are articulated, for instance in Ikenberry and Slaughter, Forging a World of Liberty. Slaughter is the author of "The Real New World Order," Foreign Affairs 76: 5 (Sept-Oct. 1997): 183-98.
40. The argument is extended in her A New World Order (Princeton, 2004).
41. Ikenberry, "Illusions of Empire: Defining the New American Order," Foreign Affairs 83:2 (Mar.-Apr. 2004):144-55.
42. A critique of the intellectual genealogy of democratic peace theory may be found in B. Jahn, "Classical Smoke, Classical Mirror: Kant and Mill in Liberal International Relations Theory," in Classical Theory in International Relations, ed. Jahn (Cambridge, 2006), 178-207.
43. On the single path to modernity, see D. Deudney and G. John Ikenberry, "The Myth of the Autocratic Revival: Why Liberal Democracy Will Prevail," Foreign Affairs 88:1 (Jan/Feb 2009): 77-94.
44. On the compatibility of multilateralism and democracy, see R. Keohane, S. Macedo, and A. Moravcsik, "Democracy-enhancing Multilateralism," International Organization 63 (winter 2009): 1-31.
45. G. John Ikenberry, T. J. Knock, A.-M. Slaughter, and T. Smith, The Crisis of American Foreign Policy: Wilsonianism in the Twenty- First Century (Princeton, 2009).
46. Cf. A. Smith, America's Mission: The United States and the Worldwide Struggle for Democracy (Princeton, 1994), chapters 1-4.
47. E. Manela, The Wilsonian Moment: Self-Determination and the International Origins of Anticolonial Nationalism (Oxford, 2007) charts the rise and rapid fall of global confience in Wilson and his message.
48. C. Eichelberger, Organizing for Peace (London, 1977).
49. Andrew Williams, Failed Imagination? New World Orders of the Twentieth Century (Manchester, 1998), 96 (Dulles), 130-31 on the Chatham House group, 189-91 on the State Department.
50. Reynolds and Hughes, eds., Historian as Diplomat, 28-29. D. C. Watts has remarked on the continuities between the British planners in 1918-19 and 1939-45: D. C. Watt, "Every War Must End: Wartime Planning for Postwar Security in Britain and America in the Wars of 1914- 1918 and 1939-1945: The Role of Historical Example and of Professional Historians," Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 28 (1978): 159-73.
51. N. Mansergh, Survey of British Commonwealth Affairs (Oxford, 1958), 308.
52. Churchill's lack of support, combined with a basically pro-League attitude, is analyzed in E. J. Hughes, "Winston Churchill and the Formation of the United Nations Organization," Journal of Contemporary History 9:4 (Oct. 1974): 177-94.
53. New York Times cited by R. Divine, Second Chance: The Triumph of Internationalism in America during World War II (New York, 1971), 228.
54. Ruth B. Russell, A History of the United Nations Charter: The Role of the United States, 1940-1945 (Washington, DC, 1958), 195.
55. M. Hankey, Diplomacy by Conference: Studies in Public Affairs, 1920-1946 (London, 1946), 121.
56. In general, see A. Grigorescu, "Mapping the UN-League of Nations Analogy: Are There Still Lessons to Be Learned from the League?" Global Governance 11 (2005): 25-42.
57. Russell, History of the UN Charter.
58. H. Notter, Postwar Foreign Policy Preparation, 1939-1945 (Washington, 1949).
59. W.E.B. DuBois, "Prospects of a World without Race Conflict," American Journal of Sociology 49:5 (March 1944): 450.
60. Stimson cited in Williams, Failed Imagination? 84.
61. V. Pavone, From the Labyrinth of the World to the Paradise of the Heart: Science and Humanism in UNESCO's Approach to Globalization (Lanham, MD, 2008), 71-72.
62. Reynolds and Hughes, eds., Historian as Diplomat, 68.
63. See H. McKinnon Wood, "Notes on the Question of Domestic Jurisdiction under the Charter of the United Nations," British Documents on Foreign Affairs, series IV: M:2 (1946) (Bethesda, MD, 2002), 281-83.
64. Documents of the UN Conference on International Organisation (London, 1945), I, 420-26.
65. J. A. Hobson, "The Scientific Basis of Imperialism," Political Science Quarterly 17:3 (Sept. 1902): 489.
66. D. Bell, "Democracy and Empire: Hobson, Hobhouse, and the Crisis of Liberalism," in British International Thinkers from Thomas Hobbes to Lewis Namier, ed. Ian Hall and Lisa Hill (Basingstoke, UK, 2009).
67. For the older movement, see Duncan J. Bell, The Idea of Greater Britain: Empire and the Future of World Order, 1860-1900 (Cambridge, 2008).
68. S. Dubow, "Colonial Nationalism, the Milner Kindergarten, and the Rise of South Africanism, 1902-1910," History Workshop Journal 43 (1997): 53-85.
69. See for background, J. E. Kendle, The Round Table and Imperial Union (Toronto, 1975).
70. W. Nimocks, Milner's Young Men: The "Kindergarten" in Edwardian Imperial Affairs (Durham, NC, 1968).
71. M. Lake and H. Reynolds, Drawing the Global Colour Line: White Men's Countries and the International Challenge of Racial Equality (Cambridge, 2008).
72. J. Smuts, Wartime Speeches: A Compilation of Public Utterances in Great Britain (New York, 1917), vi.
73. W. K. Hancock, Smuts: The Sanguine Years, 1870-1919 (Cambridge, 1962), 1:198.
74. P. Anker, Imperial Ecology: Environmental Order in the British Empire, 1895-1945 (Cambridge, MA:, 2001), 46-47.
75. Hancock, Smuts: Sanguine Years, 1:428-31.
76. W. K. Hancock and J. van der Poel, eds., Selections from the Smuts Papers (Cambridge, 1973), 5:111.
77. Hancock, Sanguine Years, 1:431-38, 500.
78. G. W. Egerton, Great Britain and the Creation of the League of Nations (Chapel Hill, 1978), 421.
79. On Woolf, see Peter Wilson, The International Theory of Leonard Woolf: A Study in Twentieth-Century Idealism (Basingstoke, UK, 2003), chaps. 3-4.
80. J. Smuts, The League of Nations: A Practical Suggestion (London, 1918).
81. P. Yearwood, "'On the Safe and Right Lines': The Lloyd George Government and the Origins of the League of Nations, 1916-1918," Historical Journal 32:1 (March 1989): 131-55, 151.
82. G. Egerton, Great Britain and the Creation of the League of Nations (Chapel Hill, NC, 1978), 103-7.
83. P. Raffo, "The Anglo- American Preliminary Negotiations for a League of Nations," Journal of Contemporary History, 9:4 (Oct. 1974): 153-76.
84. George Curry, "Woodrow Wilson, Jan Smuts, and the Versailles Settlement," American Historical Review 66:4 (July 1961): 968-86.
85. The standard work is T. Knock, To End All Wars: Woodrow Wilson and the Quest for a New World Order (Oxford, 1992).
86. V. Rothwell, British War Aims and Peace Diplomacy, 1914- 1918 (Oxford, 1971), 212.
87. Egerton, Great Britain and the Creation, 118.
88. cf. Knock, To End All Wars, 201-7.
89. Kendle, Round Table, 256-57.
90. W. Roger Louis, "The Repartition of Africa" and "The United States and the Colonial Settlement of 1919," reprinted in Roger Louis, Ends of British Imperialism (London, 2006), 205-25, 225-51.
91. Knock, To End All Wars, 214-16.
92. E. Haas, "The Reconciliation of Conflicting Colonial Policy Aims: Acceptance of the League of Nations Mandate System," International Organization 6:4 (Nov. 1952): 321-36.
93. Louis, "Repartition of Africa," 208.
94. Louis, Ends of British Imperialism, 198-99.
95. Hancock, Sanguine Years, 1:507.
96. Smuts, Wartime Speeches (New York, 1917), 75.
97. W. K. Hancock, Smuts: The Fields of Force, 1919-1950 (Cambridge, 1968), 2:56-57.
98. L. Stoddard, The Rising Tide of Color against White World Supremacy (New York, 1922), 1-6.
99. R. Hyam, The Failure of South African Expansion, 1908-1948 (New York, 1972), chap.1.
100. Louis, Ends of British Imperialism, 109.
101. Hancock, Sanguine Years, 1:223, 189.
102. T.H.R. Davenport, South Africa: A Modern History (London, 1977), 233-35, 252-53.
103. Hancock, Fields of Force, 2:117.
104. Robert M. Maxon, "The Devonshire Declaration: The Myth of Missionary Intervention," History in Africa 18 (1991): 259-71.
105. S. Dubow, Racial Segregation and the Origins of Apartheid in South Africa, 1919- 1936 (London, 1989), 4.
106. Hancock, Sanguine Years, 1:284.
107. Hancock and van der Poel, eds., Smuts Papers, 5:35.
108. Donald Birn, The League of Nations Union, 1918-1945 (Oxford, 1981), 123.
109. Anker, Imperial Ecology.
110. J. Morefield, Covenants without Swords: Idealist Liberalism and the Spirit of Empire (Princeton, NJ, 2005), chap. 3.
111. Hancock and van der Poel, eds., Smuts Papers, 5:439.
112. Hancock and van der Poel, eds., Smuts Papers, 5:511.
113. W. Roger Louis, Imperialism at Bay: The United States and the Decolonization of the British Empire, 1941-1945 (Oxford, 1978), 318.
114. Hyam, Failure of South African Expansion, 198.
115. Hyam, Failure of South African Expansion, 191.
116. Hancock, Sanguine Years, 1:371.
117. Hancock and van der Poel, eds., Smuts Papers, 6:331-43.
118. Hancock and van der Poel, eds., Smuts Papers, 6:456-69.
119. S. Gish, Alfred B. Xuma: African, American, South African (New York, 2000), 121-27.
120. Louis, Imperialism at Bay, 106, 172, 219, 337-42.
121. J. Smuts, Toward a Better World (New York, 1944), 233, 245.
122. Hancock and van der Poel, eds., Smuts Papers (Dec. 1934-August 1945), 6:269-74.
123. A good firsthand discussion is in Clark Eichelberger, Organizing for Peace: A Personal History of the Founding of the United Nations (London, 1977).
124. On federation, see in this regard R. Hillmann, "Quincy Wright and the Commission to Study the Organisation of the Peace," Global Governance 4:4 (Oct-Dec 1998).
125. on Amery, see C. Brewin, "Arnold Toynbee, Chatham House, and Research in a Global Context," in Thinkers of the Twenty Years' Crisis: Interwar Idealism Revisited, ed. D. Long and P. Wilson (Oxford, 1991), 291.
126. R. C. Hilderbrand, Dumbarton Oaks: The Origins of the United Nations and the Search for Postwar Security (Chapel Hill, NC, 1990), 226-27.
127. general account in R. H. Russell, A History of the United Nations Charter: The Role of the United States, 1940- 1945 (Washington, DC, 1958).
128. Churchill in E. J. Hughes, "Winston Churchill and the Formation of the United Nations Organization," Journal of Contemporary History 9:4 (Oct. 1974): 190.
129. Russell, History, 43.
130. P. A. Reynolds and E. J. Hughes, The Historian as Diplomat: Charles Kingsley Webster and the United Nations, 1939-1946 (London, 1976), 57.
131. T. Hoopes and D. Brinkley, FDR and the Creation of the United Nations (New Haven, CT, 1997), 204.
132. H. Aptheker, ed., Correspondence of W.E.B. DuBois: Selections, 1944-1963 (Amherst, MA, 1997), 24-25, 39.
133. Documents of the UNCIO (New York, 1945), 1:233-34, 710-11.
134. M. Sherwood, "There is No New Deal for the Blackman in San Francisco: African Attempts to Influence the Founding Conference of the United Nations, April-June 1945," International Journal of African Historical Studies, 29:1 (1996): 90-93.
135. on the UN and colonies, see Russell, History, 808-24. R. Normand and S. Zaidi, eds., Human Rights at the UN: The Political History of Universal Justice (Indiana, 2008), 127-35.
136. P. Orders, "Adjusting to a New Period in World History: Franklin Roosevelt and European Colonialism," and V. Pungong, "The US and the International Trusteeship System," in The US and Decolonisation, ed. M. Ryan and V. Pungong (New York, 2000), 63-84, 85-101.
137. Reynolds and Hughes, Historian as Diplomat, 69-71.
138. S. Dubow, "Smuts, the United Nations and the Rhetoric of Race and Rights," Journal of Contemporary History 43:1 (2008): 43-72, esp. 56-57.
139. W. K. Hancock, Sanguine Years, 1:55-56; for background, see Louis, Imperialism at Bay, chap. 34.
140. On Zimmern, see D. J. Markwell, "Sir Alfred Zimmern Revisited: Fifty Years On," Review of International Studies 12 (1986): 279-92.
141. J. Morefield, Covenants without Swords: Idealist Imperialism and the Spirit of Empire (Princeton, 2005).
142. P. Rich, "Alfred Zimmern's Cautious Idealism: The League of Nations, International Education and the Commonwealth," in Thinkers of the Twenty Years' Crisis: Interwar Idealism Reconsidered, ed. D. Long and P. Wilson (Oxford, 1995), 79-100.
143. Polly Low, Interstate Relations in Classical Greece: Morality and Power (Cambridge, 2007).
144. has some useful reflections as does Frank Trentmann, "After the Nation-State: Citizenship, Empire, and Global Coordination in the New Internationalism, 1914-1930," in Beyond Sovereignty: Britain, Empire and Transnationalism, c1880-1950, ed. K. Grant, P. Levine, and F. Trentmann (New York, 2007), 34-54.
145. A. Zimmern, The Greek Commonwealth: Politics and Economics in Fifth Century Athens (New York, 1961 [1911]), 19-20.
146. J. Stapleton, "Gilbert Murray and Alfred Eckhard Zimmern," in Gilbert Murray Reassessed: Hellenism, Theatre, and International Politics, ed. C. Stray (Oxford, 2007), 261-93.
147. Greek Commonwealth, 191-96.
148. A good discussion in the excellent J. Morefield, Covenants without Swords, 68-73.
149. for the background, Sandra M. Den Otter, British Idealism and Social Explanation (Oxford, 1996).
150. Frank Turner, The Greek Heritage in Victorian Britain (New Haven, 1981), 366-67.
151. M. Richter, The Politics of Conscience: T. H. Green and His Age (Cambridge, MA, 1964).
152. Cf J. H. Muirhead, in his Chapters from Aristotle's Ethics (Oxford, 1900).
153. "The good of the individual ought never to be separated from the good of the whole of which he is a part-ethics from politics.".
154. Cited in R. L. Nettleship, Memoir of Thomas Hill Green (London, 1906), 238.
155. See too D. Bell and C. Sylvest, "International Society in Victorian Political Thought: T. H. Green, Herbert Spencer, and Henry Sidgwick," Modern Intellectual History 3:2 (2006): 207-38.
156. John A. Hobson, Imperialism, A Study (London, 1902), chap.4; for transformations in Oxford attitudes to empire.
157. see R. Symonds, Oxford and Empire: The Last Lost Cause? (Basingstoke, 1986).
158. G. Murray, "The Exploitation of Inferior Races in Ancient and Modern Times," in Liberalism and the Empire, ed. F. Hirst, G. Murray, and J. L. Hammond (London, 1900), 118-57.
159. D. Gorman, "Lionel Curtis, Imperial Citizenship, and the Quest for Unity," The Historian 66 (2004): 67-96.
160. cf. J. E. Kendle, The Round Table and Imperial Union (Toronto, 1975), 171-73.
161. A subtle and detailed analysis is provided in Jeanne Morefield, "'An Education to Greece': The Round Table, Imperial Theory and the Uses of History," History of Political Thought 28:2 (2007): 328-61.
162. Stray, ed., Gilbert Murray, 12-13.
163. Peter Wilson, The International Theory of Leonard Woolf: A Study in Twentieth-Century Idealism (Basingstoke, UK, 2003), 44-51.
164. G. K. Peatling, "Globalism, Hegemonism, and British Power: J. A. Hobson and Alfred Zimmern Reconsidered," History 89:295 (2004): 381-98.
165. Morefield, Covenants without Sword,145-46.
166. Kendle, Round Table Movement, 224-27 (on India).
167. Kendle, Round Table, 253.
168. A. Zimmern, Nationality and Government (New York, 1918), 355.
169. Knock, To End All Wars, 3. My thanks to Stephen Wertheim for sharing his ideas with me.
170. Cf. A. Sharp, "Some Relevant Historians-The Political Intelligence Department of the Foreign Office, 1918-1920," Australian Journal of Politics and History 34:3 (1989): 359-68.
171. A. Zimmern, The League of Nations and the Rule of Law, 1918-1935 (London, 1936), 160-78.
172. Re. Zimmern's essays in Nationality and Government (New York, 1918).
173. Kendle, Round Table, 255.
174. Wells's ideas in J. S. Partington, Building Cosmopolis: The Political Thought of H. G. Wells (London, 2003).
175. P. Yearwood, "'On the Safe and Right Lines': The Lloyd George Government and the Origins of the League of Nations, 1916-1918," Historical Journal 32:1 (March 1989): 131-55.
176. P. Rich, "Alfred Zimmern's Cautious Idealism," in Thinkers of the Twenty Years' Crisis, 79-100.
177. Kendle, Round Table, 256.
178. Peatling, "Globalism, Hegemonism, and British Power," 391 (Zimmern-Hobson, 29 Sept. 1916).
179. Stapleton, "Gilbert Murray and Alfred Eckhard Zimmern," 281.
180. A. Zimmern, Europe in Convalescence (New York, 1922), 214-19.
181. A. Oslander, "Rereading Early Twentieth-Century IR Theory: Idealism Revisited," International Studies Quarterly 42:3 (1998): 419.
182. A. Zimmern, The League of Nations and the Rule of Law, 1918-1935 (London, 1936), 278.
183. J. Darwin, "A Third British Empire? The Dominion Idea in Imperial Politics," Oxford History of the British Empire (Oxford, 1998), 69-72.
184. A. Zimmern, The Third British Empire: Being a Course of Lecture Delivered at Columbia University, New York (London, 1926).
185. J. Coatman, Review of Zimmern, The Third British Empire, 3d ed. (1934), International Affairs 14:3 (May-June 1935), 419-20.
186. Oslander, "Rereading Early Twentieth-Century IR Theory," 409-32.
187. I. Parmar, "Anglo-American Elites in the Interwar Years: Idealism and Power in the Intellectual Roots of Chatham House and the Council on Foreign Relations," International Relations 16: 1 (Apr. 2002), 53-75.
188. see, for an example of this educational work, A. Zimmern, ed., University Teaching of International Relations: A Record of the Eleventh Session of the International Studies Conference, Prague 1938 (Paris, 1939).
189. P. Wilson, "The Myth of the First Great Debate," Review of International Studies 24:5 (1998): 1-15.
190. J. Quirk and D. Vigneswaran, "The Construction of an Edifice: The Story of a First Great Debate," Review of International Studies (2005) 31: 89-107.
191. R. Rich, "Reinventing Peace: David Davies, Alfred Zimmern, and Liberal Internationalism in Interwar Britain," International Relations 16 (2002): 117-33.
192. H. De Capello, "The Creation of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization," International Organization 24:1 (winter 1970): 1-30.
193. F. R. Cowell, "Planning the Organization of UNESCO, 1942-1946: A Personal Record," Journal of World History 10 (1966): 210-56.
194. A. Zimmern, "Athens and America," Classical Journal 43:1 (Oct. 1947): 3-11.
195. Zimmern, "Our Greek Augustan Age," Classical Journal 46:7 (Apr. 1951): 325-54.
196. Zimmern, The America Road to World Peace (New York, 1953).
197. Quirk and Vigneswaran, "The Construction of an Edifice.".
198. For some preliminary thoughts on this see M. Mazower, "'An International Civilization'? Empire, Internationalism, and the Crisis of the Mid-20th Century," International Affairs 82: 3 (2006): 553-66.
199. Mazower, "Paved Intentions: Civilization and Imperialism," World Affairs (fall 2008).
200. T. E. Zeiler, Dean Rusk: Defending the American Mission Abroad (Wilmington, 2000), 26-27.
201. Paul Rich, "Alfred Zimmern's Cautious Internationalism: The League of Nations, International Education, and the Commonwealth," Thinkers of the Twenty Years' Crisis, 79-100.
202. John Henry II and William Espinosa, "The Tragedy of Dean Rusk," Foreign Policy 8 (autumn 1972): 166-89.
203. Zimmern, "Athens and America".
204. Zimmern, American Road to World Peace (New York, 1953), 241.
205. Cited in Morefield, Covenants without Swords, 225, and see too her article, "Empire, Tragedy, and the Liberal State in the Writings of Niall Ferguson and Michael Ignatieff," Theory and Event 11:3 (2008).
206. A.-M.Slaughter, "America's Edge: Power in the Networked Century," Foreign Affairs (Jan-Feb. 2009).
207. M. Levene, "Nationalism and its Alternatives in the International Arena: The Jewish Question at Paris, 1919," Journal of Contemporary History 28 (1993): 511-31.
208. Levene, War, Jews, and the New Europe: The Diplomacy of Lucien Wolf, 1914-1919 (Oxford, 1992).
209. the classic study is I. Claude, National Minorities: An International Problem (Cambridge, MA, 1955).
210. L. Holborn, "The Legal Status of Political Refugees, 1920-1938," American Journal of International Law 32:4 (Oct. 1938): 680-703.
211. C. Skran, Refugees in Interwar Europe: The Emergence of a Regime (Oxford, 1995).
212. Leading a shadow existence during the war, the IGC would play a role in the formation of the postwar International Refugee Organization: "Intergovernmental Committee on Refugees," International Organization 1:1 (Feb. 1947): 144-45.
213. N. Smith, American Empire: Roosevelt's Geographer and the Prelude to Globalization (California, 2004), 295-56.
214. R. Medoff, Zionism and the Arabs: An American Jewish Dilemma, 1898-1948 (London, 1997), 85.
215. See too, A. Bashford, "Population, Geopolitics and International Organizations in the Mid Twentieth Century," Journal of World History 19:3 (Sept. 2008): 327-48.
216. Henry Field, "M" Project for FDR: Studies in Migration and Settlement (Ann Arbor, MI, 1962), 1-3.
217. Medoff, Zionism and the Arabs, 86.
218. Medoff, Zionism and the Arabs, 127-39.
219. For a brief biography, see "Eugene Kulischer," Population Index 22:2 (Apr. 1956): 100.
220. Kulischer, Europe on the Move, 25, 242-46, 324-25.
221. Eugene M. Kulischer and A. J. Jaffe, "Notes on the Population Theory of Eugene M. Kulischer," Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly 40:2 (Apr. 1962): 187-206.
222. C. Kulischer, Jewish Migration-Past Experience and Postwar Prospects (New York, 1943).
223. Schechtman's previous publications included works on Jewish autonomy, a history of anti-Jewish violence during the Russian civil war, and a study of what he called the "Jewish irredenta" in the Middle East.
224. J. Schechtman, European Population Transfers, 1939-1945 (New York, 1946), 451-52, 454.
225. cf. the antitransfer arguments of the Princeton demographer Irene Taeuber, "Population Displacements in Europe," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 234 (July 1944): 1-12.
226. J. Schechtman and Y. Benari, History of the Revisionist Movement, vol. 1 (1925-30) (Tel Aviv, 1970).
227. L.Weinbaum, A Marriage of Convenience: The New Zionist Organization and the Polish Government, 1936-1939 (Boulder, CO, 1993), chap. 8, 178.
228. H. Rosenblum, "Promoting an International Conference to Solve the Jewish Problem: The New Zionist Organization's Alliance with Poland, 1938-1939," Slavonic and East European Review 69:3 (July 1991): 478-501.
229. J. Schechtman, Fighter and Prophet: The Vladimir Jabotinsky Story, vol. 2, The Last Years (New York, 1961), esp. 337.
230. V. Jabotinsky, The Jewish War Front (London, 1940), 28, 87, 187, 212.
231. Schechtman, Fighter and Prophet, 2:352-53.
232. D. Hacohen, "Ben Gurion and the Second World War: Plans for Mass Immigration to Palestine," Studies in Contemporary Jewry 7 (1991): 247-68.
233. W. Roger Louis, Imperialism at Bay: The United States and the Decolonization of the British Empire, 1941-45 (New York, 1978), 58-59.
234. R. Medoff, Zionism and the Arabs; on the broader transformation in Zionist thought.
235. Y. Weitz, "Jewish Refugees and Zionist Policy during the Holocaust," Middle Eastern Studies 30:2 (Apr. 1994), 351-68.
236. H. Morgenthau, review of "Were the Minorities Treaties a Failure?" Journal of Modern History (1944): 236-37.
237. on Morgenthau, see N. Guilhot, "The Realist Gambit: Postwar American Political Science and the Birth of IR Theory," International Political Sociology 2:4 (Dec. 2008): 281-304.
238. W. Friedmann, "The Disintegration of European Civilization and the Future of International Law," Modern Law Review (Dec. 1938): 194-214.
239. "International Law in Development: Discussion on the Redrafted Report of the Committee," Transactions of the Grotius Society 27 (Problems of Peace and War) (1941): 252-88.
240. Lemkin papers, unpublished memoir draft, New York Public Library.
241. A. Kochavi, Prelude to Nuremberg: Allied War Crimes Policy and the Question of Punishment (Chapel Hill, NC, 1998), 165-70, 222-30.
242. J. Cooper, Raphael Lemkin and the Struggle for the Genocide Convention (New York, 2008).
243. H. Lauterpacht, International Law and Human Rights (New York, 1950), 35-36.
244. M. Caloyanni, "Memorandum on International Criminal Legislation and Peace," Revue Internationale de Droit Penal 17 (1946): 305-32.
245. "Le proces de Nuremberg et l'avenir de la Justice penale international," Revue de Droit International, de Sciences Diplomatiques et Politiques 24 (Oct.-Dec. 1946): 174-82.
246. M. Siegelberg, "Contending with the Ghosts of the Past: Raphael Lemkin and the Origins of the Genocide Convention," Columbia Undergraduate Journal of History 1:1 (January 2006): 30-48.
247. N. Masalha, The Expulsion of the Palestinians: The Concept of "Transfer" in Zionist Political Thought, 1882-1948 (Washington, DC, 1992).
248. B. Morris, The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited (Cambridge, 2004), 39-65.
249. R. Medoff, Zionism and the Arabs, 79-80.
250. Morris, Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem, 43.
251. R. Khalidi, The Iron Cage: The Story of the Palestinian Struggle for Statehood (Boston, 2006).
252. R. Medoff, Zionism and the Arabs, 104-5, 119-20.
253. C. Weizmann, "Palestine's Role in the Solution of the Jewish Problem," Foreign Affairs 20:2 (1942): 324-38.
254. Morris, Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem, 54-55.
255. R. Medoff, Zionism and the Arabs, 81-82, 115-17, 119-20.
256. Schechtman, Fighter and Prophet, 2:324-25.
257. N. Masalha, Expulsion of the Palestinian, 29.
258. Medoff, Zionism and the Arabs,125-26.
259. Borgwardt, A New Deal for the World.
260. R. Medoff, Militant Zionism in America: The Rise and Impact of the Jabotinsky Movement in the United States, 1926-1948 (Alabama, 2002), 214-15.
261. B. Morris, "Yosef Weitz and the Transfer Committee, 1948-49," Middle East Studies 22:4: 522-61, 530, 547.
262. R. Medoff, Zionism and the Arabs, 149-51.
263. I. Claude, National Minorities, chap. 12.
264. J. Schechtman, Population Transfers in Asia (New York, 1949), 84-142, 84, 86, 131, 134.
265. Schechtman, "Decline of the International Protection of Minority Rights," Western Political Quarterly 4:1 (March 1951): 1-11.
266. D. Armitage, The Declaration of Independence: A Global History (Cambridge, MA, 2007), 137.
267. Despite arguments by scholars such as Hersch Lauterpacht that recognition was becoming a matter of collective decision under international law, in fact the League after 1919 had involved itself far more directly in the recognition of new states than the UN did. For the debate on this point in the late 1940s and the failure of Lauterpacht's neo-Grotian approach, see T. Grant, The Recognition of States: Law and Practice in Debate and Evolution (New York, 1999), 123-28.
268. The political weakness of pan-Africanism after independence is noted in D. E. Apter and J. S. Coleman, "Pan-Africanism or Nationalism in Africa," in Pan-Africanism Reconsidered, ed. S. Allen (Berkeley, 1962), 81-116.
269. The transformation of the Middle East in B. Maddy-Weitzman, The Crystallization of the Arab State System, 1945-1954 (Syracuse, 1993).
270. M. Dudziak, Cold War, Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy (Princeton, 2000), 44-45.
271. Hersch Lauterpacht, International Law and Human Rights (New York, 1950), 279.
272. L. Goodrich, "From League of Nations to United Nations," International Organization 1:1 (Feb. 1947), 3-17.
273. J. Kunz, "The Secretary-General on the Role of the United Nations," American Journal of International Law 52:2 (April 1958): 302.
274. E. Korovin, "The Second World War and International Law," American Journal of International Law 40:4 (Oct. 1946): 742-55.
275. R. H. Russell, A History of the United Nations Charter: The Role of the United States, 1940-1945 (Washington, DC, 1958), 823-24.
276. on the trusteeship system, L. Goodrich, E. Hambro, and A. P. Simons, Charter of the United Nations: Commentary and Documents (New York, 1969), chap. 12.
277. populations in R. J. Kozicki, "The UN and Colonialism," in The Idea of Colonialism, ed. R. Strausz-Hope and Harry Hazard (New York, 1958), 383-430.
278. Katherine Courney cited in Birn, League of Nations Union, 223.
279. Bidault in M. Dockrill, ed., British Documents on Foreign Affairs (hereafter BDFA), Part IV: series M [International Organisations, Commonwealth Affairs and General), vol. 1 (University Publications of America), 233.
280. More broadly, E. J. Hughes, "Winston Churchill and the Formation of the United Nations Organization," Journal of Contemporary History 9:4 (Oct. 1974): 177-94, 188.
281. Welles, in N. Smith, American Empire: Roosevelt's Geographer and the Prelude to Globalization (California, 2004), 356.
282. P. Henshaw, "South African Territorial Expansion and the International Reaction to South African Racial Policies, 1939-1948," South African Historical Journal 50 (May 2004), 69-70.
283. African American reactions, cf. P. M. von Eschen, Race against Empire: Black Americans and Anticolonialism, 1937-1957 (Ithaca, NY, 1997), 61.
284. Dockrill, ed. BDFA, IV, M v. 1, 247-49.
285. M. Crowder, "Tshekedi Khama, Smuts, and South-West Africa," Journal of Modern African Studies 25:1 (1987), 25-42, 42.
286. P. Henshaw, "South African Territorial Expansion.".
287. L. Lloyd, "'A Family Quarrel': The Development of the Dispute over Indians in South Africa," Historical Journal 34:3 (Sept. 1991): 703-25, 706.
288. B. Pachai, The International Aspects of the South African Indian Question, 1860-1971 (Cape Town, 1971), 26.
289. Curtis in T. Gorman, "Lionel Curtis, Imperial Citizenship, and the Quest for Unity," The Historian 66 (2004): 83.
290. L. Lloyd, "'A Family Quarrel,'" 703-25.
291. Pachai, International Aspects of the South African Indian Question, 170-72.
292. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi (hereafter CWMG), 79: 16 July 1940-27 December 1940, 289.
293. Harijan, 13-10-1940, cited in CWMG, 79, 288-90.
294. Bombay Chronicle cited in C. Thorne, The Issue of War: States, Societies, and the Far Eastern Conflict of 1941-1945 (London, 1985), 163.
295. See too M. Lake and H. Reynolds, Drawing the Global Colour Line: White Men's Countries and the International Challenge of Racial Equality (Cambridge, 2008), chap.14.
296. E. Manela, The Wilsonian Moment: Self-Determination and the International Origins of Anticolonial Nationalism (Oxford, 2007).
297. C. Aydin, The Politics of Anti-Westernism in Asia: Visions of World Order in Pan-Islamic and Pan-Asian Thought (New York, 2007).
298. Thorne, The Issue of War, 178-79.
299. Documents in T. R. Sareen, ed., Subhas Chandra Bose and Nazi Germany (New Delhi, 1996), 311-17.
300. T. R. Sareen, "Subhas Chandra Bose, Japan, and British Imperialism," European Journal of East Asian Studies 3:1 (2004): 69-97.
301. "International Contacts," in Essential Writings of J Nehru, ed. S. Gopal and U. Iyengouri (Oxford, 2003), 200, and "India and the World" [1936], 206.
302. For a different interpretation of Nehru's international thought, see M. Bhagavan, "A New Hope: India, the United Nations, and the Making of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights," Modern Asian Studies (2008): 1-37.
303. For an exploration of the domestic implication of Nehru's nationalism, see P. Chatterjee, "The Moment of Arrival: Nehru and the Passive Revolution," in his Nationalist Thought and the Colonial World (Minnesota, 1993), 131-67.
304. Gopal, ed., Selected Works of J Nehru, 1:443-44.
305. "Colonialism Must Go," in Gopal and Iyengouri, eds., Essential Writings of J Nehru, 222-25.
306. Gopal and Iyengouri, ed., Selected Works of J Nehru, 1:438-40. 450-51, 503.
307. Lloyd, "'A Family Quarrel,'" 718.
308. N. Mansergh, ed., The Transfer of Power, 1942-47, 12 vols. (London, 1970-1983), 8:21-22, 91, 139-41, 194.
309. John Darwin, "'A Third British Empire'? The Dominion Idea in Imperial Politics," Oxford History of the British Empire (Oxford, 1998), 66-86.
310. see also L. Lloyd, "Britain and the Transformation from Empire to Commonwealth: The Significance of the Immediate Postwar Years," Round Table 343 (July 1997): 333-60.
311. Lloyd with A. James, "The External Representation of the Dominions, 1919-1948: Its Role in the Unraveling of the British Empire," British Year Book of International Law (Oxford, 1997), 479-501.
312. Mansergh, ed., Transfer of Power, 8:400-401, 714-15, 849-52, 858-61.
313. Lloyd, "'A Family Quarrel,'" 719.
314. Mansergh, ed., Transfer of Power, 7:771-772.
315. Pachai, International Aspects of the South African Indian Question, 191-92.
316. Russell, History, 908.
317. R. J. Moore, Escape from Empire: The Attlee Government and the Indian Problem (Oxford, 1983), 188-99.
318. That the domestic jurisdiction clause was already clearly weaker than planned for the majority of General Assembly members could be seen in debate over whether to admit Franco's Spain. On whether the character of the regime precluded it being offered membership, see L. Goodrich, "The United Nations and Domestic Jurisdiction," IO 3:1 (Feb. 1949): 14-28.
319. Pachai, International Aspects of the South African Indian Question, 192.
320. Gopal and Iyengouri, ed., Selected Works of J Nehru, 1:437.
321. Dockrill, BDFA, series IV, M, vol. 2 (2002): 281-87.
322. Dockrill, BDFA, series IV, M, vol. 4 (2001): 115-17, 211.
323. R. Wilson, "Some Question of Legal Relations between Commonwealth Members," American Journal of International Law 51:3 (July 1957): 611-17.
324. Lloyd, "'A Family Quarrel,'" 724.
325. Lloyd, "'A Most Auspicious Beginning": The 1946 United Nations General Assembly and the Question of the Treatment of Indians in South Africa," Review of International Studies 16:2 (April 1990): 153.
326. Gopal and Iyengouri, ed., Selected Works of J Nehru, 1:468.
327. W. K. Hancock and J. van der Poel, eds., Selections from the Smuts Papers (Cambridge, 1973), 6:16, 20, 33.
328. Government of India, Ministry of External Affairs, Question of the Treatment of Indians of South Africa before the United Nations: Verbatim Record of 106th to 112th Meetings of the First Committee held in November 1947 (New Delhi, 1948), 25-28, 45-47, 75-76.
329. Dockrill, ed., BDFA, series M, vol. 5 (2002), 237.
330. T. Hovet, Africa in the United Nations (Evanston, IL, 1963), 8.
331. Pachai, International Aspects of the South African Indian Question, 259.
332. Deshingkar, "Construction of Asia in India," 176-78.
333. G. Krishna, "India and the International Order: Retreat from Idealism," in The Expansion of International Society, ed. H. Bull and A. Watson (Oxford, 1984), 269-89.
334. For an illuminating case study of the transformed role of international anticolonialism, see M. Connelly, A Diplomatic Revolution: Algeria's Fight for Independence and the Origins of the Post- Cold War Era (Oxford, 2002).
335. S. Tetsua, "The Political Discourse of International Order in Modern Japan, 1868-1945," Japanese Journal of Political Science 9:2 (2009), 233-49, 239.
336. W. Roger Louis, Imperialism at Bay (Oxford, 1978), 247.
337. Bevin in M. Dockrill, ed., BDFA, series IV: M, 2, 214-15, 237-42.
338. G. Kennan, Memoirs (1925-1950) (New York, 1969), 229-32.
339. For a critique of the American attempt to use the UN, see H. Morgenthau, "The New United Nations and the Revision of the Charter," Review of Politics 16:1 (Jan. 1954): 3-21.
340. Cited in Thomas Knock, To End All Wars: Woodrow Wilson and the Quest for a New World Order (Princeton, 1992), 272-74.
341. on Rusk, D. Rusk, As I Saw It (New York, 1990).
342. An early study is L. Sohn, "Expulsion or Forced Withdrawal from an International Organization," Harvard Law Review 77:8 (Jun. 1964): 1381-1425.
343. A. J. Hotz, "The United Nations since 1945: An Appraisal," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 336 (July 1961): 134.
344. H. Bull, "What Is the Commonwealth?" World Politics: 577-87, 579.