Organ Dysfunctions during Severe Sepsis and Septic-Like Syndromes: Epidemiology, Classification, and Mechanisms

Sepsis and Non-Infectious Systemic Inflammation: From Biology to Critical Care

Volumn , Issue , 2009, Pages 57-76

  Hamzaoui, Olfa ^a   Carlet, Jean ^a  

^a SAINT JOSEPH HOSPITAL   (France)

Author keywords

Coagulopathy; Endothelial activation; Inflammatory cytokines; Microvascular dysfunction; Multiple organ failure (MOF); Organ dysfunction; Sequential organ failure assessment (SOFA); The multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS)

Indexed keywords

EID: 77954784899     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1002/9783527626151.ch4     Document Type: Chapter

References (115)

1. Members of the American College of Chest physicians/Society of Crit Care Consensus Conference Committee: American College of Chest physicians/Society of Crit Care Consensus Conference Committee American College of Chest physicians/Society of Crit Care Consensus Conference Committee (1992) Definitions for sepsis and organ Failure and Guidelines for the use of innovative therapies in sepsis. Crit. Care Med., 20, 864-874.
2. Bone, R.C., Fisher, C.J., Clemmer, T.P., et al. (1989) Sepsis syndrome: a valid clinical entity. Crit. Care Med., 17, 389-393.
3. Marshall, J.C., Cook, D.J., Christou, N.V., et al. (1995) Multiple organ dysfunction score: A reliable descriptor of a complex clinical outcome. Crit. Care Med., 23, 1638-1652.
4. Vincent, J.L., Moreno, R., Takala, J., et al. (1996) The SOFA (sepsis-related Organ Failure Assessement) score to describe organ dysfunction/failure. Intensive. Care Med., 22, 707-710.
5. Cook, R., Cook, D.J., Tilley, J., et al. (2001) Multiple organ dysfunctions: baseline and serial component scores. Crit. Care Med., 29, 2046-2050.
6. Bernard, G.R., Vincent, J.L., Laterre, P.F., et al. (2001) Efficacy and safety of recombinant human activated protein C for severe sepsis. N. Engl. J. Med., 344, 699-709.
7. Fagon, J.Y., Chastre, J., Novara, A., et al. (1993) Characterisation of intensive care unit patients using a model based on the presence or absence of organ dysfunctions and/or infection: the ODIN model. Intensive Care Med., 19, 137-144.
8. Levy, M., Fink, M.P., Marshall, J.C., et al. for the International Sepsis Definitions Conference (2003) 2001 SCCM/ESICM/ACCP/ATS/SIS International Sepsis Definitions Conference. Crit. Care Med., 31, 1250-1256.
9. Eiseman, B., Beart, R. and Norton, L. (1977) Multiple organ failure. Surg. Gynecol. Obstet., 144, 323-326.
10. Padkin, A., Goldfrad, C., Brady, A.R., et al. (2003) Epidemiology of severe sepsis occurring in the first 24 hours in intensive care units in England,Wales, and Northern Ireland. Crit. Care Med., 31, 2332-2338.
11. The EPISEPSIS group (2004) EPISEPSIS: a reappraisal of the epidemiology and outcome of severe sepsis in French intensive care units. Intensive Care Med., 2004, 30, 580-588.
12. Martin, G.S., Mannino, D.M., Eaton, S., et al. (2003) The epidemiology of sepsis in the United States from 1979 to 2000. N. Engl. J. Med., 348, 1546-1554.
13. Bernard, G.R., Artigas, A., Brigham, K.L., et al. (1994) The American-European Consensus Conference on ARDS. Definitions, mechanisms, relevant outcomes, and clinical trial coordination. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 149, 818-824.
14. DeLong Jr, W.G. and Born, C.T. (2004) Cytokines in patients with polytrauma. Clin. Orthop., 422, 57-65.
15. Durham, R.M., Moran, J.J., Mazusk, J.E., et al. (2003) Multiple Organ Failure in trauma patients. J. Trauma, 55, 608-616.
16. Nast-Kolb, D., Aufkolk, M., Rucholtz, S., et al. (2001) Multiple organ failure still a major cause of morbidity but not mortality in blunt multiple trauma. J. Trauma, 51, 835-842.
17. Cines, D.B., Pollak, E.S., Buck, C.A., et al. (1998) Endothelial cells in physiology and in the pathophysiology of vascular disorders. Blood, 91, 3527-3561.
18. Gross, P.L. and Aird, W.C. (2000) The endothelium and thrombosis. Semin. Thromb. Hemost., 26, 463-478.
19. Bombeli, T., Mueller, M., Haeberli, A., et al. (1997) Anticoagulant properties of the vascular endothelium. Thromb. Hemost., 77, 408-423.
20. Stefanec, T. (2000) Endothelial apoptosis: could it have a role in the pathogenesis and treatment of disease. Chest, 117, 841-854.
21. Reidy, M.A. and Schwartz, S.M. (1983) Endothelial injury and regeneration. IV. Endotoxin: a non denuding injury to aortic endothelium. Lab. Invest., 48, 25-34.
22. Reidy, M.A. and Bowyer, D.E. (1977) Scanning electron microscopy: morphology of aortic endothelium following injury by endotoxin and during subsequent repair. Atherosclerosis, 26, 319-328.
23. Leclerc, J., PU, Q., Corseaux, D., et al. (2000) A single endotoxin injection in the rabbit causes prolonged blood vessel dysfunction and a procoagulant state. Crit. Care Med., 28, 3672-3678.
24. Lee, M. and Schuessler, G. and Chien, S. (1998) Time dependant effects of endotoxin on the ultrastructure of the aortic endothelium. Artery, 15, 71-89.
25. Wang, P., Wood, T.J., Zhou, M., et al. (1996) Inhibition of the biological activity of tumor necrosis factor maintains vascular endothelial cell function during hyperdynamic sepsis. J. Trauma, 40, 694-701.
26. Bauer, P.R. (2002) Microvascular responses to sepsis: clinical significance. Pathophysiology, 8, 141-148.
27. Kayal, S., Jais, J.P., Anuini, N., et al. (1998) Elevated circulating E-selectin, intercellular adhesion molecule 1, and von Willebrand factor in patients with severe infection. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 157, 776-784.
28. Rubin, D.B., Wiener-Kronish, J.P., Murray, J.F., et al. (1990) Elevated von Willebrand factor antigen is an early plasma predictor of acute lung injury in nonpulmonary sepsis syndrome. J. Clin. Invest., 86, 474-480.
29. Rapaport, S. and Rao, L. (1992) Initiation and regulation of tissue factor-dependent blood coagulation. Arterioscler. Thromb., 12, 1111-1121.
30. Moore, K.L., Andreoli, S.P., Esmon, N.L., et al. (1987) Endotoxin enhances tissue factor and suppresses thrombomodulin expression of human vascular endpthelium in vitro. J. Clin. Invest., 79, 124-130.
31. Combes, V., Simon, A.C., Grau, G.E., et al. (1999) In vitrogeneration of endothelial microparticles and possible prothrombotic activity in patients with lupus anticoagulant. J. Clin. Invest., 104, 93-102.
32. Regoeczi, E. and Brain, M.C. (1969) Organ distribution of disseminated intravascular coagulation. Br. J. Haematol., 17, 73-81.
33. Munoz, F.M., Hawkins, E.P., Bullard, D.C., et al. (1997) Host defense against systemic infection with Streptococcus pneumoniae is impaired in the E-, P-and E-/Pselectin-deficient mice. J. Clin. Invest., 100, 2099-2106.
34. Steeber, D.A., Tang, M.L., Green, N.E., et al. (1999) Leukocyte entry intosites of inflammation requires overlapping interactions between the L-selectin and ICAM-1 pathways. J. Immunol., 163, 2176-2186.
35. Wiel, E. and Vallet, B. (2001) Vascular endothelial cell dysfunction in septic shock. Crit. Care Med., 29, S36-S41.
36. Vallet, B. (2003) Bench-to-bedside: endothelial cell dysfunction in severe sepsis: a role in organ dysfunction? Crit. Care, 7, 130-138.
37. De Backer, D., Creteur, J., Preisser, J.C., et al. (2002) Microvascular blood flow is altered in patients with sepsis. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 166, 98-104.
38. Sakr, Y., Dubois, M.J., De Backer, D., et al. (2004) Persistant microcirculatory alterations are associated with organ failure and death in patients with septic shock. Crit. Care Med., 32, 1825-1831.
39. Fink, M.P. (2002) Bench-to-bedside review: cytopathic hypoxia. Crit. Care, 6, 491-499.
40. Vary, T.C. (1996) Sepsis-induced alterations in pyruvate dehydrogenase complex activity in rat skeletal muscle: effects on plasma lactate. Shock, 6, 89-94.
41. Vary, T.C. and Hazen, S. (1999) Sepsis alters pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase activity in skeletal muscle. Mol. Cell. Biochem., 198, 113-118.
42. Cassina, A. and Radi, R. (1996) Differential inhibitory action of nitric oxide and peroxynitrite on mitochondrial electron transport. Arch. Biochem. Biophys., 328, 309-316.
43. Takehara, Y., Kanno, T. and Yoshioka, T., et al. (1995) Oxygen-dependant regulation of mitochondrial energy metabolism by nitric oxide. Arch. Biochem. Biophys., 323, 27-32.
44. Brown, G.C., Bolanos, J.P., Heal, S.J., et al. (1995) Nitric oxide produced by activated astrocyte rapidly and reversibly inhibits cellular respiration. Neursci. Lett., 193, 201-204.
45. Khan, A.U., Delude, R.L., Han, Y.H., et al. (2002) Liposomal NAD+ prevents diminished O2 consumption by immunostimulated Caco-2 cells. Am. J. Physiol., 282, L1082-L1091.
46. Van der Poll, T. and Van Deventer, S.J. (1999) Cytokines and anti-cytokines in the pathogenesis of sepsis. Infect. Dis. Clin. North. Am., 13, 413-426.
47. Pinsky, M. (2000) Immune balance in critically ill patients. Arch. Immunol. Ther. Exp., 48, 439-442.
48. Hanasaki, K., Yokota, Y., Ishizaki, J., et al. (1997) Resistance to endotoxic shock in phospholipase A2 receptor-deficient mice. J. Biol. Chem., 272, 32792-32797.
49. Annane, D., Bellissant, E. and Cavaillon, J.M. (2005) Septic shock. Lancet, 365, 63-78.
50. Aird, W.C. (2003) The role of the endothelium in severe sepsis and multiple organ dysfunction syndrome. Blood, 101, 3765-3777.
51. Parrillo, J. (1990) Myocardial depression during septic shock in humans. Crit. Care Med., 18, 1183-1184.
52. Abi Gerges, N., Tavernier, B., Mebazza, A., et al. (1999) Sequential changes in autonomic regulation of cardiac myocyte after in vivo endotoxin injection in rat. Am. J. Resp. Crit. Care Med., 160, 1196-1204.
53. Tavernier, B., Mebazza, A., Mateo, P., et al. (2001) Phosphorylation-dependent alteration in myofilaments calcium sensitivity but normal mitochondrial function in septic heart. Am. J. Resp. Crit. Care Med., 163, 362-367.
54. Komukai, K. and Kurihara, S. (1997) Length-dependence of calcium-tension relationship in aequorin-injected ferret papillary muscles. Am. J. Physiol., 273, H1068-H1074.
55. Rabuel, C., Renaud, E., Ratajzak, P., et al. (2003) Les proteines cardiaques sont nitrées par le peroxynitrite puis dégradés par l'ubiquitine chez les patients septiques. Ann. Fr. Anesth. Réanim., 22, S348.
56. Brady, A., Pool-Wilson, P., Harding, S., et al. (1992) Nitric oxide production within cardiac myocytes reduces their contractility in endotoxemia. Am. J. Physiol., 263, H1963-H1966.
57. Kelly, R., Balligand, J.L. and Smith, T.W. (1996) Nitric oxide and cardiac function. Circ. Res., 79, 368-380.
58. Fauvel, H., Marchetti, P., Chopin, C., et al. (2001) Differential effects of caspase inhibitors on endotoxin-induced myocardial dysfunction and heart apoptosis. Am. J. Physiol., 280, H1608-H1614.
59. Fernandes Jr, C., Iervolino, M., et al. (1994) Interstitial myocarditis in sepsis. Am. J. Cardiol., 74, 958.
60. Brealey,D., Brand, M., Hargreaves, I., et al. (2002) Association between mitochondrial dysfunction and severity and outcome of septic shock. Lancet, 360, 219-223.
61. Kumar, A., Thota, V., Dee, L., et al. (1996) Tumor necrosis factor alpha and interleukin 1 beta are responsible for in vitro myocardial cell depression induced by human septic shock serum. J. Exp. Med., 183, 949-958.
62. Mebazza, A., De Keulenaer, G., Paqueron, X., et al. (2001) Activation of cardiac endotheliumas a compensatory component in endotoxin-induced cardiomypathy: role of endothelin, prostaglandin, prostaglandins and nitric oxide. Circulation, 104, 3137-3144.
63. Beasley, D. and Eldridge, M. (1994) Interleukin-1 beta and tumor necrosis factor alpha synergistically induce NO synthase in rat vascular smooth muscle cells. Am. J. Physiol., 266, R1197-1203.
64. Laszlo, F., Whittle, B.J., Evans, S.M., et al. (1995) Association of microvascular leakage with induction of nitric oxide synthase: effects of nitric oxide synthas inhibitors in various organs. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 283, 47-53.
65. Annane, D., Sebille, V., Troche, G., et al. (2000) A 3-Level prognostic classification in septic shock based on cortisol levels and cortisol response to corticotrophin. JAMA, 283, 1038-1045.
66. Marik, P.E. and Zaloga, G.P. (2003) Adrenal insufficiency during septic shock. Crit. Care Med., 31, 141-145.
67. Briegel, J., Scelling, G., Haller, M., et al. (1996) A Comparison of the adrenocortical response during septic shock and after complete recovery. Intensive Care Med., 22, 894-899.
68. Annane, D. and Bellissant, E. (2002) Impact of corticosteroids on the vascular reponse to cathecolamines in septic shock. Reanimation, 11, 111-116.
69. Annane, D., Sebille, V., Charpentier, C., et al. (2002) Effect of treatment with low doses of hydrocortisone and fluorocortisone on mortality in patients with septic shock. JAMA, 288, 862-871.
70. Lam, C., Tyml, K., Martin, C., et al. (1994) Microvascular perfusion impaired in a rat model of normotensive sepsis. J. Clin. Invest., 94, 2077-2083.
71. Piper, R.D., Pitt Hyde, M., Li, F., et al. (1996) Miccrocirculatory changes in rat skeletal muscle in sepsis. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 154, 931-937.
72. Boczkowski, J., Vicaut, E. and Aubier, M. (1992) In vivo effects of Escherichia coli endotoxemia on diaphragmatic microcirculation in rats. J. Appl. Physiol., 72, 2219-2224.
73. Unger, L.S., Cryer, H.M., Garrison, R.N., et al. (1989) Differential response of the microvasculature in the liver during bacteremia. Circ. Shock, 29, 335-344.
74. Hinshaw, L.B. (1996) Sepsis/septic shock: Participation of the microcirculation: an abbreviated review. Crit. Care Med., 24, 1072-1078.
75. Diaz, N.L., Finol, H.J., Torres, S.H., et al. (1998) Histochemical and ultrastructural study of skeletal muscle in patients with sepsis and multiple organ failure syndrome (MOFS). Histol. Histopathol., 13, 121-128.
76. Riedmann, N.C., Guo, R.F. and Ward, P.A. (2003) The enigma of sepsis. J. Clin. Invest., 112, 460-467.
77. Rangel-Frausto, M.S., Pittet, D., Costigan, M., et al. (1995) The natural history of systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS): a prospective study. JAMA, 273, 117-123.
78. Levy, E.M., Viscoli, C.M., Horowitz, R.I., et al. (1996) The effect of acute renal failure on mortality: a cohort analysis. JAMA, 275, 1489-1494.
79. Angus, D.C., Linde-Zwirble, W.T., Lidicker, J., et al. (2001) Epidemiology of severe sepsis in the United States: analysis of incidence, outcome, and associated costs of care. Crit. Care Med., 29, 1303-1310.
80. Groenveld, A.B.J., Tran, D.D., Van Der Meulen, J., et al. (1991) Acute renal failure in the medical intensive care unit: predisposing, complicating factors and outcome. Nephron, 59, 602-610.
81. Lugon, J.R., Boim, M.A., Ramos, O.L., et al. (1989) Renal function and glomular hemodynamics in male endotoxic rats. Kidney Int., 36, 570-575.
82. Millar, C.G.M. and Thiemermann, C. (1997) Interenal hemodynamics and renal dysfunction in endotoxaemia: effects of nitric oxide synthase inhibition. Br. J. Pharmacol., 121, 1824-1830.
83. Van Lambalgen, A.A., Bouriquet, N. and Cassellas, D. (1996) Effects of endotoxin on tone and pressure-responsiveness of preglomerular juxtamedullary vessels. Eur. J. Physiol., 432, 574-577.
84. Vervloet, M.G., Piepot, H.A. and Groeneveld, A.B.J. (2002) The kidney in sepsis. The sepsis text.
85. Kohan, D.E. (1994) Role of endothelin and tumor necrosis factor in the renal response to sepsis. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant., 9(suppl 4), 73-77.
86. Baud, L. and Ardaillou, R. (1995) Tumor necrosis factor in renal injury. Miner. Electrolyte Metab., 21, 336-341.
87. Bernard, G.R., Artigas, A., Brigham, K.L., et al. (1994) The American European consensus conference on ARDS. Definitions, mechanisms, relevant outcomes, and clinical trial coordinations. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 149, 818-824.
88. Zhu, A.J., Shi, J.S. and Sun, X.J. (2003) Organ failure associated with severe acute pancreatitis. World. J. Gastroenterol., 9, 2570-2573.
89. Crimi, E., Zhang, H., Han, R.N.N., et al. (2006) Ischemia and reperfusion increases susceptibility to ventilator-induced lung injury in rats. Am. J. Respir. Crit. CareMed., 174, 178-186.
90. Bahtia, M. and Moochhala, S. (2004) Role of inflammatory mediators in the pathophysiology of acute respiratory distress syndrome. J. Pathol., 202, 145-156.
91. Awad, S.S. (2003) State of the art-therapy for severe sepsis and multisystem organ dysfunction. Am. J. Surg., 28, 23S-30S.
92. Papadopoulos, M.C., Davies, D.C., Moss, R.F., et al. (2000) Pathophysiology of septic encephalopathy a review. Crit. Care Med., 28, 3019-3024.
93. Eidelman, L.A., Putterman, D., Putterman, C., et al. (1996) The spectrum mortality of septic encephalopathy. Definitions, etiologies and mortalities. JAMA, 275, 470-473.
94. Eidelman, L.A., Putterman, D., Putterman, C., et al. The spectrumof septic encephalopathy. Definitions, etiologies, and mortalities. JAMA, 275, 470-473.
95. Ebersoldt, M., Sharshar, T. and Annane, D. (2007) Sepsis-associated delirium. Intensive Care Med., 33, 941-950.
96. Young, C.B., Bolton, C.F. and Archibald, Y.M. (1992) The electroencephalogram in sepsis-associated encephalopathy. J. Clin. Neurophysiol., 9, 145-152.
97. Goris, R.J.A. (1990) Mediators of multiple organ failure. Intensive Care Med., 16, S192-S196.
98. Terborg, C., Schummer, W., Albrecht, M., et al. (2001) Dysfunction of vasomotor reactivity in severe sepsis and septic shock. Intensive Care Med., 27, 1231-1234.
99. Pollard, V., Prough, D.S., Deyo, D.J., et al. (1997) Cerebral blood flow during experimental endotoxemia in volunteers. Crit. Care Med., 25, 1700-1706.
100. Chuang, Y.C., Tsai, J.L., Chang, A.Y., et al. (2002) Dysfunction of the mitochondrial respiratory chain in the rostral ventro-lateral medulla during experimental endotoxemia in the rat. J. Biomed. Sci., 9, 542-548.
101. Sharshar, T., Carlier, R., Bernard, F., et al. (2007) Brain lesions in septic shock: a magnetic resonance imaging study. Intensive Care Med., 33, 798-806.
102. Vallet, B. and Wiel, E. (2001) Endothelial cell dysfunction and coagulation. Crit. Care Med., 29, S36-S41.
103. Ngyuen, T.C. and Carcillo, J.A. (2006) Bench-to-bedside review: thrombocytopenia-associated multiple organ failure-a newly appreciated syndrome in the critically ill. Crit. Care, 10, 235-242.
104. Sadler, J.E. (1998) Biochemistry and genetics of von Willebrand factor. Annu. Rev. Biochem., 67, 395-424.
105. Levy, G.G., Nichols, W.C., Lian, E.C., et al. (2001) Mutations in a member of the ADAMTS gene family cause thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura. Nature, 413, 488-494.
106. Corner, R.S., Hoerer, E., Kulu, Y., et al. (2006) Hepatic platelet and leukocyte adherence during endotoxemia. Crit. Care, 10, R15.
107. Koo, D.J., Chaudry, I.H. and Wang, P. (1999) Kupffer cells are responsible for producing inflammatory cytokines and hepatocellular dysfunction during early sepsis. J. Surg. Res., 83, 151-157.
108. Wang, P., Ba, Z.F. and Chaudry, I.H. (1995) Hepatocellular dysfunction occurs earlier than the onset of hyperdynamic circulation during sepsis. Shock, 3, 21-26.
109. Wang, P., Ba, Z.F. and Chaudry, I.H. (1997) Mechanism of hepatocellular dysfunction during early sepsis. Key role of increased gene expression and release of proinflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor and interleukin-6. Arch. Surg., 132, 364-370.
110. Smets, D., Spapen, H., Diltoer, M., et al. (1999) Liver perfusion and hepatocellular inflammatory response in sepsis. Acta. Clin. Belg., 54, 201-206.
111. Deutschman, C.S., Cereda, M., Ochroch, A., et al. (2006) Sepsis-induced cholestasis, steatosis, hepatocellular injury, and impaired hepatocellular regeneration are enhanced in interleukin-6-/-mice. Crit. Care Med., 34, 2613-2620.
112. Antonelli, M., Levy, M., Andrews, P.J.D., et al. (2007) Hemodynamic monitoring in shock and implications for management. Intensive Care Med., 33, 575-590.
113. Le Gall, J.R., Klar, J., Lemeshow, S., et al. (1996) The Logistic Organ Dysfunction system. A new way to assess organ dysfunction in the intensive care unit. ICU Scoring Group. JAMA, 276, 802-810.
114. Hotchkiss, R.S. and Karl, I.E. (2003) The pathophysiology and treatment of sepsis. N. Engl. J. Med., 348, 138-150.
115. Abraham, E. and Singer, M. (2007) Mechanisms of sepsis-induced organ dysfunction. Crit. Care Med., 35, 1-9.