Opportunistic fungal infections in patients with HIV and AIDS

Journal of Chinese Clinical Medicine

Volumn 4, Issue 2, 2009, Pages 106-120

  Moazeni, Maryam ^a   Haghmorad, Dariush ^a   Mirshafiey, Abbas ^a  

^a TEHRAN UNIVERSITY OF MEDICAL SCIENCES   (Iran)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AMPHOTERICIN B; ANTIFUNGAL AGENT; FLUCONAZOLE; ITRACONAZOLE; KETOCONAZOLE; POSACONAZOLE; PROTEINASE INHIBITOR; PYRROLE DERIVATIVE; RNA DIRECTED DNA POLYMERASE INHIBITOR; TRIAZOLE DERIVATIVE;

ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME; APOPTOSIS; ASPERGILLOSIS; CANDIDIASIS; CD4+ T LYMPHOCYTE; CLINICAL TRIAL; COCCIDIOIDOMYCOSIS; CRYPTOCOCCOSIS; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; DISEASE COURSE; DISEASE SEVERITY; DRUG MEGADOSE; DRUG SUBSTITUTION; DRUG WITHDRAWAL; HIGHLY ACTIVE ANTIRETROVIRAL THERAPY; HISTOPLASMOSIS; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS 1; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS 2; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; IMMUNE SYSTEM; MYCOSIS; NEPHROTOXICITY; NONHUMAN; OPPORTUNISTIC INFECTION; OROPHARYNX CANDIDIASIS; PATHOGENESIS; PENECILLIOSIS; PHYLOGENY; PREVALENCE; QUALITY OF LIFE; REVIEW; SPOROTRICHOSIS; VIRUS REPLICATION;

EID: 77953448094     PISSN: 15629023     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (147)

1. Maplanka C. AIDS: is there an answer to the global pandemic? The immune system in HIV infection and control. Viral Immunol, 2007,20: 331-342.
2. Martinez J,Temesgen Z. Opportunistic infections in patients with HIV and AIDS. Fungal and parasitic infections. J Med Liban, 2006,54:84-90.
3. Haddad NE, Powderly WG. The changing face of mycoses in patients with HIV/AIDS. AIDS Read, 2001,11:365-368,375-378.
4. Beattie T, Rowland-Jones S, Kant R. HIV-1 and AIDS: what are protective immune responses? J HIV Ther,2002,7:35-39.
5. Hage CA, Goldman M, Wheat LJ. Mucosal and invasive fungal infections in HIV/AIDS. Eur J Med Res, 2002,7:236-241.
6. Dhasmana DJ, Dheda K, Ravn P, Wilkinson RJ, Meintjes G. Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in HIV-infected patients receiving antiretroviral therapy: pathogenesis, clinical manifestations and management. Drugs, 2008,168:191-208.
7. Lloyd A. HIV infection and AIDS. PNG Med J, 1996,39:174-180.
8. Huang YT, Hung CC, Liao CH. Detection of circulating galactomannan in serum samples for diagnosis of penicillium marneffei infection and cryptococcosis among patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus. J Clinic Microbiol,2007,45:2858-2862.
9. Marty F, Mylonakis E. Antifungal use in HIV infection. Expert Opin Pharmacother,2002,3:91-102.
10. Ruhnke M. Mucosal and systemic fungal infections in patients with AIDS: prophylaxis and treatment. Drugs, 2004,64:1163-1180.
11. Levy JA. Pathogenesis of human immunodeficiency virus infection. Microbiol Rev,1993,57:183-289.
12. Garry RF. Potential mechanisms for the cytopathic properties of HIV. AIDS,1989,3:683-694.
13. Costin JM. Cytopathic mechanisms of HIV-1. Virology Journal,2007, 4:100-121.
14. Friedman-Kien A, Laubenstein L, Marmor M, Hymes K, Green J, Ragaz A, et al. Kaposi's sarcoma and Pneumocystis pneumonia among homosexual men-New York City and California. MMWR, 1981, 30: 305-308.
15. Letvin NL, Daniel MD, Sehgal PK, Desrosiers RC, Hunt RD, Waldren LM, et al. Induction of AIDS-like disease in macque monkeys with Y-cell tropic retrovirus STLV-111. Science, 1985,230:71-73.
16. Gallo RC. Historical easy: The early years of HIV/AIDS. Science, 2002,298:1728-1730.
17. Montagnier L. Historical easy: A history of HIV discovery. Science, 2002,298:1727-1728.
18. Krostad P. Molecular biology of the human immunodeficiency virus: Current and future target for intervention. Seminars in Pediatric Infectious Disease,2003,14:258-268.
19. Spira S, Wainberg MA, Loemba H, Turner D, Brenner BG. Impact of clade diversity on HIV-1 virulence, antiretroviral drug sensitivity and drug resistance. J Antimicrob Chemother,2003,51:229-240.
20. Dalgleish AG, Beverley PC, Clapham PR. The CD4 (T4) antigen is an essential component of the receptor for the AIDS retrovirus. Nature, 1984;312:763-767.
21. Gougeon ML. To kill or be killed:how HIV exhausts the immune system. Cell Death and Differentiation 2005,12:845-854.
22. Rasheed S, Gottlieb AA, Gavy RF. Cell killing by ultraviolet-inactivated human immunodeficiency virus. Virology, 1986, 154: 395-400.
23. Schroder AR, Shinn P, Chen H, Berry C, Ecker JR, Bushman F. HIV-1 integration in the human genome favors active genes and local hotspots. Cell, 2002,110:521-529.
24. Moog C, Fleury HJ, Pellegrin I. Autologous and heterologous neutralizing antibody responses fallowing initial seroconversion in human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected individuals. J Virol, 1997,71: 3734-3741.
25. Norman L, Letvin NL, Walker BD. Immunopathogenesis and Immunotherapy in AIDS virus infections. Nature Medicine, 2003,9:861-866.
26. Sierra S, Kupfer B, Kaiser R. Basics of the virology of HIV-1 and its Replication. J Clinl Virol, 2005,34:233-244.
27. Jacobson JM. Passive immunization for the treatment of HIV infection. Mt Sinai J Med, 1998,65:22-26.
28. + lymphocytes can control HIV infection in vitro by suppressing virus replication. Scienc, 1986,234:1563-566.
29. Kandathil AJ, Ramalingam S, Kannangai R, David S, Sridharan G. Molecular epidemiology of HIV. Indian J Med Res,2005,121:333-344.
30. McMichael AJ, Rowland-Jones SL. Cellular immune responses to HIV. Nature,2001,410:980-987.
31. Hadida F, Vieillard V, Mollet L, Clark-Lewis I, Baggiolini M, Debre P. Cutting edge: RANTES regulates Fas ligand expression and killing by HIV-specific CD8 cytotoxic T cells. J Immunol,1999,163:1105-1109.
32. + cells: evidence for HLA class I-restricted triggering of cytolytic and noncytolytic mechanisms. J Virol, 1997,71:3120-3128.
33. Alten TM, O'Connor DH, Jing P, Dzuris JL, Mothé BR, Vogel TU, et al. Tat-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes select for SIV escape variants during resolution of primary viraemia. Nature, 2000,407:386-390.
34. Halestrap AP, Brennerb C. The adenine nucleotide translocase: a central component of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore and key player in cell death. Curr Med Chem, 2003,10:1507-1525.
35. Sherman MP, De Noronha CM, Williams SA, Greene WC. Insights into the biology of HIV-1 viral protein R. DNA Cell Biol,2002,21:679-688.
36. Gottlieb MS, Schroff R, Schanker HM, Weisman JD, Fan PT, Wolf RA, et al. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia and mucosal candidiasis in previously healthy homosexual men: evidence of a new acquired cellular immunodeficiency. N Engl J Med, 1981,305:1425.
37. Masur H, Michelis M, Green J. An Outbreak of community-acquired Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia: initial manifestation of cellular immune dysfunction. N Emgl J Med, 1981,305:1431.
38. Levitz SM. Owerview of host defenses in fungal infections. Clin Infect Dis,1992,14:37-42.
39. Williams SA, Greene WC. Regulation of HIV-1 latency by T-cell activation. Cytokine,2007,39:63-74.
40. Perelson AS, Essunger P, Cao Y, Vesanen M, Hurley A, Saksela K, et al. Decay characteristics of HIV-1-infected compartments during combination therapy. Nature, 1997,387:188-191.
41. Chun TW, Davey RT Jr, Ostrowski M, Shawn Justement J, Engel D, Mullins JI, et al. Relationship between pre-existing viral reservoirs and the re-emergence of plasma viremia after discontinuation of highly active anti-retroviral therapy. Nat Med,2000,6:757-761.
42. Davey RT Jr, Bhat N, Yoder C, Chun TW, Metcalf JA, Dewar R, et al. HIV-1 and T cell dynamics after interruption of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) in patients with a history of sustained viral suppression. PNAS, 1999,96:15109-15114.
43. Vazquez JA. Therapeutic options for the management of oropharyngeal and esophageal candidiasis in HIV/AIDS patients. HIV Clin Trials, 2000,1:47-59.
44. Nielsen H, Bentsen KD, Hojtved L, Willemoes EH, Scheutz F, Schiodt M, et al. Oral candidiasis and immune status of HIV-infected patients. J. Oral Pathol. Med,1994,23:140-143.
45. + lymphocyte cell enumeration for prediction of clinical course of human immunodeficiency virus disease: a review. J Infect Dis, 1992,165:352-363.
46. Yang YL, Lo HJ, Hung CC, Li Y. Effect of prolonged HAART on oral colonization with Candida and candidiasis. BMC Infect Dis, 2006, 20:6-8.
47. Samaranayake LP. Oral mycoses in HIV infection. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol, 1992,73:171-180.
48. Vazquez JA. Role of posaconazole in the management of oropharyngeal and esophageal candidiasis. Ther Clin Risk Manag, 2007,3:533-542.
49. Moore RD, Chaisson RE. Natural history of opportunistic disease in an HIV-infected urban clinical cohort. Ann Intern Med, 1996, 124: 633-642.
50. Tumbarello M, Tacconelli E, de Gaetano DK, Morace G, Fadda G, Cauda R. Candidemia in HIV-infected subjects. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis,1999,18:478-483.
51. De Repentigny L, Lewandowski D, Jolicoeur P. Immunopathogenesis of oropharyngeal candidiasis in human immunodeficiency virus infection. Clin Microbiol Rev,2004,17:729-759.
52. Schuman P, Sobel JD, Ohmit SE, Mayer KH, Carpenter CC, Rompalo A, et al. Mucosal candidal colonization and candidiasis in women with or at risk for human immunodeficiency virus infection. Clin Infect Dis,1998,27:1161-1167.
53. Vazquez JA, Sobel JD, Dismukes WE, Pappas PG, Sobel JD. Candidiasis in Clinical Mycology 1st ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003:143-187.
54. Pappas PG, Rex JH, Sobel JD, Fller SG, Dismukes WE, Walsh JJ, et al. Guidelines for treatment of candidiasis. Clin Infect Dis,2004,38: 161-189.
55. Kleinegger CL, Lockhart SR, Vargas K, Soll DR. Frequency, intensity, species, and strains of oral Candidia vary as a function of host age. J Clin microbial, 1996,34:2246-2254.
56. Fichtenbaum CJ, Koletar S, Yiannoutsos C, Holland F, Pottage J, Cohn SE, et al. Refractory mucosal candidiasis in advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection. Clin Infect Dis 2000, 30: 749-756.
57. Kalo-Klein A, Witkin SS. Prostaglandin E2 enhances and gamma interferon inhibits germ tube formation in Candida albicans. Infect Immunity, 1990,58:260-262.
58. Poudrier J, Weng X, Kay D, Paré G, Calvo E, Hanna Z, et al. The AIDS disease of CD4C/HIV transgenic mice shows impaired germinal centers and autoantibodies and develops in the absence of IFN-gamma and IL-6. Immunity,2001,15:173-185.
59. Vargas KG, Joly S. Carriage frequency, intensity of carriage, and strains of oral yeast species vary in the progression to oral candidiasis in human immunodeficiency virus-positive individuals. J Clin Microbiol, 2002,40:341-350.
60. Steele C, Leigh J, Swoboda R, Fidel PL Jr. Growth inhibition of Candida by human oral epithelial cells. J Infect Dis, 2000, 182: 1479-485.
61. + T cells is mediated by macrophages through interaction of HIV gp120 with chemokine receptor CXCR4. Nature, 1998,395:189-194.
62. Fidel PL Jr. Distinct protective host defenses against oral and vaginal candidiasis. Med Mycol, 2002,40:359-375.
63. Myers TA, Leigh JE, Arribas AR, Hager S, Clark R, Lilly E, et al. Immunohistochemical evaluation of T cells in oral lesions from human immunodeficiency virus-positive persons with oropharyngeal candidiasis. Infect Immun,2003,71:956-963.
64. Lasker BA, Elie CM, Lou TJ, Espinel-Ingroff A, Gallagher L, Kuykendall RJ, et al. Molecular epidemiology of Candida albicans strains isolated from the oropharynx of HIV-positive patients at successive clinic visits. Med Mycol,2001,39:341-352.
65. Schorling SR, Kortinga HC, Froschb M, Muldschlegel FA. The role of Candida dubliniensis in oral candidiasis in human immunodeficiency virus-infected individuals. Crit Rev Microbiol, 2000,26:59-68.
66. Chiou CC, Groll AH, Gonzalez CE, Callender D, Venzon D, Pizzo PA. Esophageal candidiasis in pediatric acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: clinical manifestations and risk factors. Pediatr Infect Dis J, 2000,19:729-734.
67. Reichart PA, Samaranayake LP, Philipsen HP. Pathology and clinical correlates in oral candidiasis and its variants: a review. Oral Dis, 2000,6:85-91.
68. Darouiche RO. Oropharyngeal and esophageal candidiasis in immunocompromised patients: Treatment issues. Clin Infect Dis,1998,26:59-274.
69. Kauffman CA. Histoplasmosis: A clinical and laboratory update. Clin Microbiol Rev,2007,20:115-132.
70. Wheat LJ, Kauffman CA. Histoplasmosis. Infect Dis Clin North Am, 2003,17:1-19.
71. Wheat LJ. Histoplasmosis: a review for clinicians from non-endemic areas. Mycoses,2006,149:274-282.
72. Loulergue P, Bastides F, Baudouin V, Chandenier J, Mariani-Kurkdjian P, Dupont B, et al. Literature review and case histories of Histoplasma capsulatum var. duboisii infections in HIV-infected patients. Emerg Infect Dis,2007,13:1647-1652.
73. Dromer F, Mathoulin-Pelissier S, Launay O, Lortholary O and the French Cryptococcosis Study Group. Determinants of disease presentation and outcome during Cryptococcosis the CryptoA/D study. PLoS Med,2007,4:297-308.
74. Mints, DK, Dembele M, Lorre G, Diallo DA, Traore HA, Chabbase D. African histoplasmosis (Histoplasma capsulatum var. duboisii): a case report from Mali [in French], 2005,15:195-199.
75. Geffray L, Veyssier P, Cevallos R, Beaud B, Mayolle J, Nogier C, et al. African histoplasmosis: clinical and therapeutic aspects, relation to AIDS. Apropos of 4 cases, including a case with HIV-1-HTLV-1 co-infection. Ann Med Interne, 1994,145:424-428.
76. Murata M, Furusyo N, Otaguro S, Nabeshima S Ariyama I, Hayashi J. HIV infection with concomitant cerebral toxoplasmosis and disseminated histoplasmosis in a 45-year-old man. J Infect Chemother,2007, 13:51-55.
77. Tobon AM, Agudelo CA, Rosera DS, Ochoa JE, De Bedout C, Zuluaga A, et al. Disseminated histoplasmosis: a comparative study between patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome and non-human immunodeficiency virus-infected individuals. Am J Trop Med Hyg, 2005,73:576-582.
78. Lee JT, Dixon MR, Murrell Z, Konialian V, Agbunag R, Rostami S, et al. Colonic Histoplasmosis presenting as colon cancer in the nonimmunocompromised patients: Report of a case and review of literature. Am Surg,2004,70:959-961.
79. Klassen-Fischer M, McEvoy P, Neafie RC, Nelson AM. Accurate diagnosis of infection with Histoplasma capsulatum var. duboisii. Clin Infect Dis,2004,38:595-596.
80. Kauffman CA. Diagnosis of histoplasmosis in immunosuppressed patients. Curr Opin Infect Dis,2008,21:421-425.
81. Breton G, Adle-Biassette H, Therby A, Ramanoelina J, Choudat L, Bissuel F, et al. Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in HIV-infected patients with disseminated histoplasmosis. AIDS, 2006, 20:119-121.
82. Carvalho MT, de Castro AP, Baby C, Werner B, Filus Neto J, Queiroz-Telles F. Disseminated cutaneous sporotrichosis in a patient with AIDS: report of a case. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop, 2002,35:655-659.
83. Morris-Jones R. Sporotrichosis. Clin Exp Dermatol,2002,27:427-431.
84. Marimon R, Cano J, Gené J, Sutton DA, Kawasaki M, Guarro J. Sporothrix brasiliensis, S. globosa, and S. mexicana, three new Sporothrix species of clinical interest. J Clin Microbiol,2007,45:3198-3206.
85. Feeney KT, Arthur IH, Whittle AJ, Altmarr SA, Speers DJ Outbreak of sporotrichosis, Western Australia. Emerg Infect Dis, 2007,13:1228-1231.
86. Davis BA. Sporotrichosis. Dermatologic Clinics, 1996,14:69-76.
87. Gori S, Lupelli A, Moscato G, Parenti M, Lofaro A. Pulmonary Sporotrichosis with Hyphae in a Human Immunodeficiency Virus-Infected Patient. Acta Cytologica, 1997,41:510-521.
88. Kauffman CA. Sporotrichosis. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 1999,29: 231-237.
89. Edwards C, Reuther WL 3rd, Greer DL. Disseminated osteoarticular sporotrichosis: treatment in a patient with acquired Immunodeficiency syrdrome. South Med J,2000,93:803-806.
90. Silva-Vergara ML, Maneira FR, de Oliveira RM, Santos CT, Etchebehere RM, Adad SJ. Multifocal sporotrichosis with meningerd involvement in a paitient wiyh AIDS. Med Mycol,2005,43:187-190.
91. Vilela R, Souza GF, Fernandes Cota G, Mendoza L. Cutaneous and meningeal sporotrichosis in a HIV patient. Rev Iberoam Micol,2007, 24:161-163.
92. Johnson RA. HIV Disease: Mucocutaneous Fungal Infections in HIV disease. Clinics in Dermatology, 2000,18:411-422.
93. Kauffman CA, Hajjeh R, Chapman SW. Practice guidelines for the management of patients with sporotrichosis. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 2000,30:684-687.
94. Edwards C, Reuther WL, Greer DL. Disseminated osteoarticular sporotrichosis: treatment in a patient with acute AIDS syndrome. Southern Medical Journal,2000,93:803-806.
95. Ware AJ, Cockerell CJ, Skiest DJ, Kussman HM. Disseminated sporotrichosis with extensive cutaneous involvement in a patient with AIDS. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology, 1999,140: 350-355.
96. Al-Tawfiq JA, Wools KK. Disseminated sporotrichosis and sporothrix schenckii fungemia as the initial presentation of human immunodeficiency virus infection. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 1998,26:1403-1406.
97. Cao L, Chen DI, Lee C, Chan CM, Chan KM, Vanittanakom N, et al. Detection of specific antibodies to an antigenic mannoprotein for diagnosis of penicillium marneffei penicilliosis. Jurnal of Clinical Microbiology, 1998,36:3208-3031.
98. Chariyalertsak S, Sirisanthana T, Saengwonloey O, Nelson KE. Clinical presentation and risk behaviors of patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome in Thailand, 1994-1998: regional variation and temporal trends. Clin Infect Dis,2001,32:955-962.
99. Noritomi DT, Guilherme Linhares Bub, Beer I, da Silva AF, de Cleva R, Gama Rodrigues JJ. Multiple Brain Abscesses due to Penicillium spp Infection. Rev Inst Med Trop S Paulo, 2005,47:167-170.
100. Lyratzopoulus G, Ellis S, Nerringer R, Denning DW. Invasive infection due to Penicillium species other than P marneffei. J Infection, 2002,45:184-207.
101. Ruxrunghtam K, Phanuphak P. Update on HIV/AIDS in Thailand. J Med Assoc Thai, 2001,84 (suppl 1): S1-S17.
102. Desakorn V, Simpson AJ, Wuthiekanun V, Sahassananda D, Rajanuwong A, Pitisuttithum P, et al. Development and evaluation of rapid urinary antigen detection tests for diagnosis of penicilliosis marneffei. J Clin Microbiol., 2002,40:3179-3183.
103. Panackall AA, Hajjeh RA, Cetron MS. Warnock DW. Fungal infections among returning travelers. Clin Infect Dis, 2002, 5: 1088-1095.
104. Yousukh A. Jutavjittum P, Pisetpognsa P, Chitapanarux T, Thongsawat S, Senba M, et al. Clinicopathologic study of hepatic Penicillium marneffei in Northern Thailand. Arch Path Lab Med,2004,128: 191-194.
105. Ungpakorn R. Cutaneous manifestations of Penicillium marneffei infection. Curr Opin Infect Dis,2000,13:129-134.
106. Wong SSY, Wong KH, Hui WT, Lee SS, Lo JYC, Cao L, et al. Differences in clinical and laboratory diagnostic characteristics of penicilliosis marneffei in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and non-HIV-infected patients. J Clin Microbiol,2001,39:4535-4540.
107. Chang DC, Anderson S, Wannemuehler K, Engelthaler DM, Erhart L, Sunenshine RH, et al. Testing for coccidioidomycosis among patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Emerg Infect Dis,2008, 14:1053-1059.
108. Batura-Gabryel H, Brajer B. Coccidioidomycosis in a 38-year-old man: a case report. Pol Arch Med Wewn, 2008,119:387-390.
109. Ampel NM, Dols CL, Galgiani JN. Coccidioidomycosis during human immunodeficiency virus infection: results of a prospective study in a coccidioidal endemic area. Am J Med, 1993,94:235-240.
110. Jones JL, Fleming PL, Ciesielski CA, Hu DJ, Kaplan JE, Ward JW. Coccidioidomycosis among persons with AIDS in the United States. J Infect Dis, 1995,171:961-966.
111. Mahaffey KW, Hippenmeyer CL, Mandel R, Ampel NM. Unrecognized coccidioidomycosis complicating Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients infected with the human immunodeficiency virus and treated with corticosteroids: a report of two cases. Arch Intern Med,1993,153:1496-1498.
112. Fish DG, Ampel NM, Galgiani JN, Dols CL, Kelly PC, Johnson CH, et al. Coccidioidomycosis during human immunodeficiency virus infection: a review of 77 patients. Medicine (Baltimore), 1990,69: 384-391.
113. Ampel NM. Coccidioidomycosis in persons infected with HIV type 1. Clin Infect Dis,2005,41:1174-1178.
114. Sarosi GA, Davies SF. Therapy for fungal infections. Mayo Clin Proc, 1994,69:1111-1117.
115. Benson CA, Kaplan JE, Masur H, Pau A, Holmes KK. Treating opportunistic infections among HIV-infected adults and adolescents. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep,2004,53:1-112.
116. Denning DW. Invasive aspergillosis. Clin Infect Dis, 1998,26:781-805.
117. Moreno A, Perez-Elías M, Casado J, Navas E, Pintado V, Fortún J, et al. Role of antiretroviral therapy in long-term survival of patients with AIDS-related pulmonary aspergillosis. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis,2000,19:688-693.
118. Wallace JM, Lim R, Browdy BL, Hopewell PC, Glassrotb J, Rosen MJ, et al. Risk factors and outcomes associated with identification of Aspergillus in respiratory specimens from persons with HIV disease. Pulmonary Complications of HIV Infection Study Group. Chest, 1998,114:131-137.
119. Woitas RP, Rockstroh JK, Theisen A, Leutner C, Sauerbruch T, Spengler U. Changing role of invasive aspergillosis in AIDS-a case control study. J Infect, 1998,37:116-122.
120. Holding KJ, Dworkin MS, Wan PC, Hanson DL, Klevens RM, Jones JL, et al. Aspergillosis among people infected with human immunodeficiency virus:incidence and survival. Adult and Adolescent Spectrum of HIV Disease Project. Clin Infect Dis, 2000,30:1253-1257.
121. Tumbarello M, Tacconelli E, Pagano L, E Ortu La Barbera, Morace G, Cauda R, et al. Comparative analysis of prognostic indicators of aspergillosis in haematological malignancies and HIV infection. J Infect, 1997,34:55-60.
122. CDC. Update on acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)-United States. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 1982,31:507-514.
123. Keller MJ, Sax PE. Aspergillus sinusitis in two HIV-infected men. AIDS Clin Care, 1997,9:94-100.
124. Stanford D, Boyle M, Gillespie R. Human immunodeficiency virus-related primary cutaneous aspergillosis. Australas J Dermatol,2000, 41:112-116.
125. Mylonakis E, Barlam TF, Flanigan T, Rich JD. Pulmonary aspergillosis and invasive disease in AIDS. Review of 342 cases. Chest, 1998, 114:251-262.
126. Menezes EA, Monteiro MNR, Angelo MRF, Santos CD, Cesar C, F Freire1, et al. Cryptococcus neoformans causing meningitis in AIDS patients. Revista da Sociedade Brasileira de Medicina Tropical, 2002,35:537-539.
127. + T lymphocyte responses. Cellular Immunology, 2003,222:116-125.
128. Chiapello L, Iribarren P, Cervi L, Rubinstein H, Masih DT. Mechanisms for Induction of Immunosuppression during Experimental Cryptococcosis: Role of Glucuronoxylomannan. Clinical Immunology, 2001,100:96-106.
129. Kozel TR. Non-encapsulated variant of Cryptococcus neoformans. II. Surface receptors for cryptococcal polysaccharide and their role in inhibition of phagocytosis by polysaccharide. Infect Immun, 1977, 16:99-106.
130. Chang YC, Kwon-Chung KJ. Isolation, characterization, and localization of a capsule-associated gene, CAP10, of Cryptococcus neoformans. J Bacteriol, 1999,181:5636-5643.
131. Jung WH, Sham A, White R, Kronstad JW. Iron regulation of the major virulence factors in the AIDS-associated pathogen cryptococcus neoformans. PLoS Biology, 2006,4:2282-2295.
132. Vartivarian SE, Anaissie EJ, Cowart RE, Sprigg HA, Tingler MJ, et al. Regulation of cryptococcal capsular polysaccharide by iron. J Infect Dis, 1993,167:186-190.
133. Janbon G. Cryptococcus neoformans capsule biosynthesis and regulation. FEMS Yeast Res,2004,4:765-771.
134. Polacheck I, Hearing VJ, Kwon-Chung KJ. Biochemical studies of phenoloxidase and utilization of catecholamines in Cryptococcus neoformans. J Bacteriol, 1982,50:1212-1220.
135. Jacobson ES, Compton GM. Discordant regulation of phenoloxidase and capsular polysaccharide in Cryptococcus neoformans. J Med Vet Mycol, 1996,34:289-291.
136. Moalem S, Weinberg ED, Percy ME. Hemochromatosis and the enigma of misplaced iron: Implications for infectious disease and survival. Biometals, 2004,17:135-139.
137. McNamara L, MacPhail AP, Gordeuk VR, Hasstedt SJ, Rouault T. Is there a link between African iron overload and the described mutations of the hereditary haemochromatosis gene? Br J Haematol, 1998,102:1176-1178.
138. Buchanan KL, Doyle HA. Requirement for CD4 (+) T lymphocytes in host resistance against Cryptococcus neoformans in the central nervous system of immunized mice. Infect Immune, 2000, 68: 456-462.
139. Schop J. Protective Immunity against Cryptococcus neoformans Infection. MJM,2007,10:35-43.
140. Mitchell TG Perfect JR. Cryptococcosis in the Era of AIDS-100 Years after the Discovery of C. neoformans. Clin Microbiol Rev, 1995,8:515-548.
141. Viviani M, Cogliati M, Esposto M, Lemmer K, Tintelnot K, Valiente M, et al. Molecular analysis of 311 Cryptococcus neoformans isolates from a 30-month ECMM survey of cryptococcosis in Europe. FEMS Yeast Res, 2006,6:614-619.
142. Mirza SA, Phelan M, Rimland D, Graviss E, Hamill R, Brandt ME, et al. The changing epidemiology of cryptococcosis: an update from population-based active surveillance in 2 large metropolitan areas, 1992-2000. Clin Infect Dis, 2003,36:789-794.
143. Dromer F, Mathoulin-Pelissier S, Launay O, Lortholary O, and the French Cryptococcosis Study Group. Determinants of disease presentation and outcome during cryptococcosis: The CryptoA/D Study. PLoS Med,2007,4:e21.
144. Charlier C, Dromerl F, Leveque C, Chartier L, Cordoliani YB, Fontanet A, et al. Cryptococcal Neuroradiological Lesions Correlate with Severity during Cryptococcal Meningoencephalitis in HIV-Positive Patients in the HAART Era. PLoS ONE, 2008,3:1-7.
145. Jarvis JN, Harrison TS. Pulmonary Cryptococcosis. Semin Respir Crit Care Med, 2008,29:141-150.
146. Corti M, Trione N, Semorile K, Palmieri O, Negroni R, Arechavala A. Cavitary pneumonia in an AIDS patient with Cryptococcosis. Rev Iberoam Micol, 2008,25:41-44.
147. Vidotto V, Ito-Kuwa S, Nakamura K, Aoki S, Melhem M, et al. Extracellular enzymatic activities in Cryptococcus neoformans strains isolated from AIDS patients in different countries. Infect Immune, 2006,144-151.