Inflammation and Cerebral Vasospasm After Subarachnoid Hemorrhage

Neurosurgery Clinics of North America

Volumn 21, Issue 2, 2010, Pages 365-379

  Pradilla, Gustavo ^a   Chaichana, Kaisorn L ^a   Hoang, Stanley ^b   Huang, Judy ^a   Tamargo, Rafael J ^a  

^a JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b STANFORD UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Cerebral vasospasm; Endothelial cells; Haptoglobin; Hemoglobin; Inflammation; Leukocytes; Nitric oxide; Subarachnoid hemorrhage

Indexed keywords

ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; CORTICOSTEROID; CYCLOSPORIN; HYDROCORTISONE; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; IBUPROFEN; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE AGENT; METHYLPREDNISOLONE; NAFAMSTAT; NICOTINAMIDE ADENINE DINUCLEOTIDE ADENOSINE DIPHOSPHATE RIBOSYLTRANSFERASE INHIBITOR; NIMODIPINE; NITRIC OXIDE; NONSTEROID ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; PLACEBO; PRAVASTATIN; STRESS ACTIVATED PROTEIN KINASE INHIBITOR; TACROLIMUS; THROMBOXANE SYNTHASE INHIBITOR;

ARTERY OCCLUSION; ARTERY SPASM; BRAIN VASOSPASM; CELL INTERACTION; CLINICAL RESEARCH; CLINICAL TRIAL; DATA ANALYSIS; DISEASE COURSE; DRUG MEGADOSE; DRUG TARGETING; ENCEPHALITIS; ENDOTHELIUM; ENDOTHELIUM CELL; EXPERIMENTAL THERAPY; HUMAN; LEUKOCYTE; MEDLINE; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; NONHUMAN; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PUBLICATION; REVIEW; SUBARACHNOID HEMORRHAGE;

ANTI-INFLAMMATORY AGENTS; CEREBRAL ARTERIES; ENDOTHELIAL CELLS; HUMANS; LEUKOCYTES; SUBARACHNOID HEMORRHAGE; VASCULITIS, CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM; VASODILATOR AGENTS; VASOSPASM, INTRACRANIAL;

EID: 77951039949     PISSN: 10423680     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.nec.2009.10.008     Document Type: Review

References (202)

1. Kassell N.F., Torner J.C., Haley E.C., et al. The International Cooperative Study on the timing of aneurysm surgery. Part 1: overall management results. J Neurosurg 1990, 73:18.
2. Kassell N.F., Torner J.C., Jane J.A., et al. The International Cooperative Study on the timing of aneurysm surgery. Part 2: surgical results. J Neurosurg 1990, 73:37.
3. Solenski N.J., Haley E.C., Kassell N.F., et al. Medical complications of aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage: a report of the multicenter, cooperative aneurysm study. Participants of the Multicenter Cooperative Aneurysm Study. Crit Care Med 1995, 23:1007.
4. Suarez J.I., Tarr R.W., Selman W.R. Aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. N Engl J Med 2006, 354:387.
5. Weir B., Grace M., Hansen J., et al. Time course of vasospasm in man. J Neurosurg 1978, 48:173.
6. Haley E.C., Kassell N.F., Torner J.C., et al. A randomized trial of two doses of nicardipine in aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. A report of the Cooperative Aneurysm Study. J Neurosurg 1994, 80:788.
7. Armin S.S., Colohan A.R., Zhang J.H. Traumatic subarachnoid hemorrhage: our current understanding and its evolution over the past half century. Neurol Res 2006, 28:445.
8. Hamer J., Krastel A. Cerebral vasospasm after brain injury. Neurochirurgia (Stuttg) 1976, 19:185.
9. Martin N.A., Doberstein C., Alexander M., et al. Posttraumatic cerebral arterial spasm. J Neurotrauma 1995, 12:897.
10. Martin N.A., Doberstein C., Zane C., et al. Posttraumatic cerebral arterial spasm: transcranial Doppler ultrasound, cerebral blood flow, and angiographic findings. J Neurosurg 1992, 77:575.
11. Pasqualin A., Vivenza C., Rosta L., et al. Cerebral vasospasm after head injury. Neurosurgery 1984, 15:855.
12. Sander D., Klingelhofer J. Cerebral vasospasm following post-traumatic subarachnoid hemorrhage evaluated by transcranial Doppler ultrasonography. J Neurol Sci 1993, 119:1.
13. Soustiel J.F., Shik V. Posttraumatic basilar artery vasospasm. Surg Neurol 2004, 62:201.
14. Taneda M., Kataoka K., Akai F., et al. Traumatic subarachnoid hemorrhage as a predictable indicator of delayed ischemic symptoms. J Neurosurg 1996, 84:762.
15. Zubkov A.Y., Lewis A.I., Raila F.A., et al. Risk factors for the development of post-traumatic cerebral vasospasm. Surg Neurol 2000, 53:126.
16. Bejjani G.K., Duong D.H., Kalamarides M., et al. Cerebral vasospasm after tumor resection. A case report. Neurochirurgie 1997, 43:164.
17. el Hendawy M., Wronski J., Juniewicz H., et al. Cerebral vasospasm detection by TCD after supratentorial brain tumours surgery. Neurol Neurochir Pol 2000, 34:114.
18. Yamashima T., Kida S., Yamamoto S. An electron microscopic study of cerebral vasospasm with resultant myonecrosis in cases of subarachnoid haemorrhage, meningitis and trans-sylvian surgery. J Neurol 1986, 233:348.
19. Chaichana K., Riley L.H., Tamargo R.J. Delayed cerebral vasospasm secondary to bacterial meningitis after lumbosacral spinal surgery: case report. Neurosurgery 2007, 60:E206.
20. Ferris E.J., Rudikoff J.C., Shapiro J.H. Cerebral angiography of bacterial infection. Radiology 1968, 90:727.
21. Pfister H.W., Borasio G.D., Dirnagl U., et al. Cerebrovascular complications of bacterial meningitis in adults. Neurology 1992, 42:1497.
22. Ries S., Schminke U., Fassbender K., et al. Cerebrovascular involvement in the acute phase of bacterial meningitis. J Neurol 1997, 244:51.
23. Yamashima T., Kashihara K., Ikeda K., et al. Three phases of cerebral arteriopathy in meningitis: vasospasm and vasodilatation followed by organic stenosis. Neurosurgery 1985, 16:546.
24. Gallia G.L., Tamargo R.J. Leukocyte-endothelial cell interactions in chronic vasospasm after subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurol Res 2006, 28:750.
25. Ascenzi P., Bocedi A., Visca P., et al. Hemoglobin and heme scavenging. IUBMB Life 2005, 57:749.
26. Claassen J., Bernardini G.L., Kreiter K., et al. Effect of cisternal and ventricular blood on risk of delayed cerebral ischemia after subarachnoid hemorrhage: the Fisher scale revisited. Stroke 2001, 32:2012.
27. Dietrich H.H., Dacey R.G. Molecular keys to the problems of cerebral vasospasm. Neurosurgery 2000, 46:517.
28. Fisher C.M., Kistler J.P., Davis J.M. Relation of cerebral vasospasm to subarachnoid hemorrhage visualized by computerized tomographic scanning. Neurosurgery 1980, 6:1.
29. Hijdra A., van Gijn J., Nagelkerke N.J., et al. Prediction of delayed cerebral ischemia, rebleeding, and outcome after aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. Stroke 1988, 19:1250.
30. Nishizawa S., Laher I. Signaling mechanisms in cerebral vasospasm. Trends Cardiovasc Med 2005, 15:24.
31. Qureshi A.I., Sung G.Y., Razumovsky A.Y., et al. Early identification of patients at risk for symptomatic vasospasm after aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. Crit Care Med 2000, 28:984.
32. Doering T.J., Brix J., Schneider B., et al. Cerebral hemodynamics and cerebral metabolism during cold and warm stress. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 1996, 75:408.
33. Rother R.P., Bell L., Hillmen P., et al. The clinical sequelae of intravascular hemolysis and extracellular plasma hemoglobin: a novel mechanism of human disease. JAMA 2005, 293:1653.
34. Hooper D.C., Steer C.J., Dinarello C.A., et al. Haptoglobin and albumin synthesis in isolated rat hepatocytes. Response to potential mediators of the acute-phase reaction. Biochim Biophys Acta 1981, 653:118.
35. Giblett E.R. The haptoglobins of human serum. J Forensic Sci 1963, 8:446.
36. McCormick D.J., Atassi M.Z. Hemoglobin binding with haptoglobin: delineation of the haptoglobin binding site on the alpha-chain of human hemoglobin. J Protein Chem 1990, 9:735.
37. Wejman J.C., Hovsepian D., Wall J.S., et al. Structure and assembly of haptoglobin polymers by electron microscopy. J Mol Biol 1984, 174:343.
38. Wejman J.C., Hovsepian D., Wall J.S., et al. Structure of haptoglobin and the haptoglobin-hemoglobin complex by electron microscopy. J Mol Biol 1984, 174:319.
39. Bowman B.H., Kurosky A. Haptoglobin: the evolutionary product of duplication, unequal crossing over, and point mutation. Adv Hum Genet 1982, 12:189.
40. Langlois M.R., Delanghe J.R. Biological and clinical significance of haptoglobin polymorphism in humans. Clin Chem 1996, 42:1589.
41. Smithies O. Zone electrophoresis in starch gels: group variations in the serum proteins of normal human adults. Biochem J 1955, 61:629.
42. Javid J. The effect of haptoglobin polymer size on hemoglobin binding capacity. Vox Sang 1965, 10:320.
43. Asleh R., Guetta J., Kalet-Litman S., et al. Haptoglobin genotype- and diabetes-dependent differences in iron-mediated oxidative stress in vitro and in vivo. Circ Res 2005, 96:435.
44. Blum S., Asaf R., Guetta J., et al. Haptoglobin genotype determines myocardial infarct size in diabetic mice. J Am Coll Cardiol 2007, 49:82.
45. Lange V. Anthropol Anz 1992, 50:281. [in German].
46. Melamed-Frank M., Lache O., Enav B.I., et al. Structure-function analysis of the antioxidant properties of haptoglobin. Blood 2001, 98:3693.
47. Serhan C.N. Resolution phase of inflammation: novel endogenous anti-inflammatory and proresolving lipid mediators and pathways. Annu Rev Immunol 2007, 25:101.
48. Serhan C.N., Savill J. Resolution of inflammation: the beginning programs the end. Nat Immunol 2005, 6:1191.
49. Filer A., Raza K., Salmon M., et al. Targeting stromal cells in chronic inflammation. Discov Med 2007, 7:20.
50. O'Shea J.J., Murray P.J. Cytokine signaling modules in inflammatory responses. Immunity 2008, 28:477.
51. Springer T.A. Traffic signals for lymphocyte recirculation and leukocyte emigration: the multistep paradigm. Cell 1994, 76:301.
52. Ecker A., Riemenschneider P.A. Arteriographic demonstration of spasm of the intracranial arteries, with special reference to saccular arterial aneurysms. J Neurosurg 1951, 8:660.
53. Gull W.M. Cases of aneurism of the cerebral vessels. Guys Hosp Rep 1859, 5:281.
54. Florey H. Microscopical observations on the circulation of blood in the cerebral cortex. Brain 1925, 48:43.
55. Jackson I.J. Aseptic hemogenic meningitis. An experimental study of aseptic meningeal reactions due to blood and its breakdown products. Arch Neurol Psychiatry 1949, 62:572.
56. Robertson E.G. Cerebral lesions due to intracranial aneurysms. Brain 1949, 72:150.
57. Chou W.H., Choi D.S., Zhang H., et al. Neutrophil protein kinase Cdelta as a mediator of stroke-reperfusion injury. J Clin Invest 2004, 114:49.
58. Fisher C.M., Roberson G.H., Ojemann R.G. Cerebral vasospasm with ruptured saccular aneurysm-the clinical manifestations. Neurosurgery 1977, 1:245.
59. Henker R., Carlson K.K. Fever: applying research to bedside practice. AACN Adv Crit Care 2007, 18:76.
60. Rousseaux P., Scherpereel B., Bernard M.H., et al. Fever and cerebral vasospasm in ruptured intracranial aneurysms. Surg Neurol 1980, 14:459.
61. Weir B., Disney L., Grace M., et al. Daily trends in white blood cell count and temperature after subarachnoid hemorrhage from aneurysm. Neurosurgery 1989, 25:161.
62. Oliveira-Filho J., Ezzeddine M.A., Segal A.Z., et al. Fever in subarachnoid hemorrhage: relationship to vasospasm and outcome. Neurology 2001, 56:1299.
63. Maiuri F., Gallicchio B., Donati P., et al. The blood leukocyte count and its prognostic significance in subarachnoid hemorrhage. J Neurosurg Sci 1987, 31:45.
64. McGirt M.J., Mavropoulos J.C., McGirt L.Y., et al. Leukocytosis as an independent risk factor for cerebral vasospasm following aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. J Neurosurg 2003, 98:1222.
65. Neil-Dwyer G., Cruickshank J. The blood leucocyte count and its prognostic significance in subarachnoid haemorrhage. Brain 1974, 97:79.
66. Niikawa S., Hara S., Ohe N., et al. Correlation between blood parameters and symptomatic vasospasm in subarachnoid hemorrhage patients. Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo) 1997, 37:881.
67. Spallone A., Acqui M., Pastore F.S., et al. Relationship between leukocytosis and ischemic complications following aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. Surg Neurol 1987, 27:253.
68. Ostergaard J.R., Kristensen B.O., Svehag S.E., et al. Immune complexes and complement activation following rupture of intracranial saccular aneurysms. J Neurosurg 1987, 66:891.
69. Pellettieri L., Carlson C.A., Lindholm L. Is the vasospasm following subarachnoidal hemorrhage an immunoreactive disease?. Experientia 1981, 37:1170.
70. Pellettieri L., Nilsson B., Carlsson C.A., et al. Serum immunocomplexes in patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurosurgery 1986, 19:767.
71. Kasuya H., Shimizu T. Activated complement components C3a and C4a in cerebrospinal fluid and plasma following subarachnoid hemorrhage. J Neurosurg 1989, 71:741.
72. Rothoerl R.D., Axmann C., Pina A.L., et al. Possible role of the C-reactive protein and white blood cell count in the pathogenesis of cerebral vasospasm following aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol 2006, 18:68.
73. Crompton M.R. The pathogenesis of cerebral infarction following the rupture of cerebral berry aneurysms. Brain 1964, 87:491.
74. Hoshi T., Shimizu T., Kito K., et al. Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo) 1984, 24:647. [in Japanese].
75. Hughes J.T., Schianchi P.M. Cerebral artery spasm. A histological study at necropsy of the blood vessels in cases of subarachnoid hemorrhage. J Neurosurg 1978, 48:515.
76. Ryba M., Jarzabek-Chorzelska M., Chorzelski T., et al. Is vascular angiopathy following intracranial aneurysm rupture immunologically mediated?. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 1992, 117:34.
77. Shimizu T., Kito K., Hoshi T., et al. Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo) 1982, 22:613. [in Japanese].
78. Walton J.N. The prognosis and management of subarachnoid haemorrhage. Can Med Assoc J 1955, 72:165.
79. Mori T., Nagata K., Ishida T., et al. Sequential morphological changes of the constrictive basilar artery in a canine model of experimental cerebral vasospasm by talc injection. J Vet Med Sci 1994, 56:535.
80. Nagata K., Sasaki T., Mori T., et al. Cisternal talc injection in dog can induce delayed and prolonged arterial constriction resembling cerebral vasospasm morphologically and pharmacologically. Surg Neurol 1996, 45:442.
81. Peterson J.W., Kwun B.D., Hackett J.D., et al. The role of inflammation in experimental cerebral vasospasm. J Neurosurg 1990, 72:767.
82. Recinos P.F., Pradilla G., Thai Q.A., et al. Controlled release of lipopolysaccharide in the subarachnoid space of rabbits induces chronic vasospasm in the absence of blood. Surg Neurol 2006, 66:463.
83. Yanamoto H., Kikuchi H., Okamoto S., et al. Cerebral vasospasm caused by cisternal injection of polystyrene latex beads in rabbits is inhibited by a serine protease inhibitor. Surg Neurol 1994, 42:374.
84. Chyatte D. Prevention of chronic cerebral vasospasm in dogs with ibuprofen and high-dose methylprednisolone. Stroke 1989, 20:1021.
85. Chyatte D., Rusch N., Sundt T.M. Prevention of chronic experimental cerebral vasospasm with ibuprofen and high-dose methylprednisolone. J Neurosurg 1983, 59:925.
86. Chyatte D., Sundt T.M. Response of chronic experimental cerebral vasospasm to methylprednisolone and dexamethasone. J Neurosurg 1984, 60:923.
87. Handa Y., Hayashi M., Takeuchi H., et al. Effect of cyclosporine on the development of cerebral vasospasm in a primate model. Neurosurgery 1991, 28:380.
88. Mori T., Nagata K., Ishida T., et al. FK-506: a new immunosuppressive agent, failed to reduce cerebral vasospasm after experimental subarachnoid hemorrhage. J Vet Med Sci 1993, 55:581.
89. Nagata K., Sasaki T., Iwama J., et al. Failure of FK-506, a new immunosuppressant, to prevent cerebral vasospasm in a canine two-hemorrhage model. J Neurosurg 1993, 79:710.
90. Nishizawa S., Peterson J.W., Shimoyama I., et al. Therapeutic effect of a new immunosuppressant, FK-506, on vasospasm after subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurosurgery 1993, 32:986.
91. Peterson J.W., Nishizawa S., Hackett J.D., et al. Cyclosporine A reduces cerebral vasospasm after subarachnoid hemorrhage in dogs. Stroke 1990, 21:133.
92. White R.P., Robertson J.T. Comparison of piroxicam, meclofenamate, ibuprofen, aspirin, and prostacyclin efficacy in a chronic model of cerebral vasospasm. Neurosurgery 1983, 12:40.
93. Chyatte D., Fode N.C., Nichols D.A., et al. Preliminary report: effects of high dose methylprednisolone on delayed cerebral ischemia in patients at high risk for vasospasm after aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurosurgery 1987, 21:157.
94. Hashi K., Takakura K., Sano K., et al. No To Shinkei 1988, 40:373. [in Japanese].
95. Manno E.M., Gress D.R., Ogilvy C.S., et al. The safety and efficacy of cyclosporine A in the prevention of vasospasm in patients with Fisher grade 3 subarachnoid hemorrhages: a pilot study. Neurosurgery 1997, 40:289.
96. Ryba M., Pastuszko M., Iwanska K., et al. Cyclosporine A prevents neurological deterioration of patients with SAH-a preliminary report. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 1991, 112:25.
97. Ryba M., Pastuszko M., Dziewiecki C., et al. A strategy for analyzing multiple parameters with application to aneurysmal SAH patients all of them clipped but treated with and without cyclosporine. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 1993, 122:194.
98. Pozzesi N., Gizzi S., Gori F., et al. IL-2 induces and altered CD4/CD8 ratio of splenic T lymphocytes from transgenic mice overexpressing the glucocorticoid-induced protein GILZ. J Chemother 2007, 19:562.
99. Elenkov I.J. Glucocorticoids and the Th1/Th2 balance. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2004, 1024:138.
100. Pritchard D.I. Sourcing a chemical succession for cyclosporin from parasites and human pathogens. Drug Discov Today 2005, 10:688.
101. Ryba M., Grieb P., Bidzinski J., et al. Cyclosporine A for the prevention of neurological deficit following subarachnoid hemorrhage. Stroke 1991, 22:531.
102. Green G.A. Understanding NSAIDs: from aspirin to COX-2. Clin Cornerstone 2001, 3:50.
103. Kapiotis S., Sengoelge G., Sperr W.R., et al. Ibuprofen inhibits pyrogen-dependent expression of VCAM-1 and ICAM-1 on human endothelial cells. Life Sci 1996, 58:2167.
104. Pradilla G., Thai Q.A., Legnani F.G., et al. Local delivery of ibuprofen via controlled-release polymers prevents angiographic vasospasm in a monkey model of subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurosurgery 2005, 57:184.
105. Thai Q.A., Oshiro E.M., Tamargo R.J. Inhibition of experimental vasospasm in rats with the periadventitial administration of ibuprofen using controlled-release polymers. Stroke 1999, 30:140.
106. German J.W., Gross C.E., Giclas P., et al. Systemic complement depletion inhibits experimental cerebral vasospasm. Neurosurgery 1996, 39:141.
107. Yanamoto H., Kikuchi H., Okamoto S., et al. Preventive effect of synthetic serine protease inhibitor, FUT-175, on cerebral vasospasm in rabbits. Neurosurgery 1992, 30:351.
108. Kaminogo M., Yonekura M., Onizuka M., et al. Combination of serine protease inhibitor FUT-175 and thromboxane synthetase inhibitor OKY-046 decreases cerebral vasospasm in patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo) 1998, 38:704.
109. Yanamoto H., Kikuchi H., Sato M., et al. Therapeutic trial of cerebral vasospasm with the serine protease inhibitor, FUT-175, administered in the acute stage after subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurosurgery 1992, 30:358.
110. Kansas G.S. Selectins and their ligands: current concepts and controversies. Blood 1996, 88:3259.
111. Campbell J.J., Qin S., Bacon K.B., et al. Biology of chemokine and classical chemoattractant receptors: differential requirements for adhesion-triggering versus chemotactic responses in lymphoid cells. J Cell Biol 1996, 134:255.
112. Chan J.R., Hyduk S.J., Cybulsky Ml Chemoattractants induce a rapid and transient upregulation of monocyte alpha4 integrin affinity for vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 which mediates arrest: an early step in the process of emigration. J Exp Med 2001, 193:1149.
113. Schenkel A.R., Mamdouh Z., Muller W.A. Locomotion of monocytes on endothelium is a critical step during extravasation. Nat Immunol 2004, 5:393.
114. Lasky L.A. Selectins: interpreters of cell-specific carbohydrate information during inflammation. Science 1992, 258:964.
115. Rosen S.D. Cell surface lectins in the immune system. Semin Immunol 1993, 5:237.
116. Polin R.S., Bavbek M., Shaffrey M.E., et al. Detection of soluble E-selectin, ICAM-1, VCAM-1, and L-selectin in the cerebrospinal fluid of patients after subarachnoid hemorrhage. J Neurosurg 1998, 89:559.
117. Nissen J.J., Mantle D., Blackburn A., et al. The selectin superfamily: the role of selectin adhesion molecules in delayed cerebral ischaemia after aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage. Acta Neurochir Suppl 2000, 76:55.
118. Nissen J.J., Mantle D., Gregson B., et al. Serum concentration of adhesion molecules in patients with delayed ischaemic neurological deficit after aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage: the immunoglobulin and selectin superfamilies. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2001, 71:329.
119. Lin C.L., Dumont A.S., Calisaneller T., et al. Monoclonal antibody against E selectin attenuates subarachnoid hemorrhage-induced cerebral vasospasm. Surg Neurol 2005, 64:201.
120. de Fougerolles A.R., Stacker S.A., Schwarting R., et al. Characterization of ICAM-2 and evidence for a third counter-receptor for LFA-1. J Exp Med 1991, 174:253.
121. Springer T.A. Adhesion receptors of the immune system. Nature 1990, 346:425.
122. Clatterbuck R.E., Oshiro E.M., Hoffman P.A., et al. Inhibition of vasospasm with lymphocyte function-associated antigen-1 monoclonal antibody in a femoral artery model in rats. J Neurosurg 2002, 97:676.
123. Pradilla G., Wang P.P., Legnani F.G., et al. Prevention of vasospasm by anti-CD11/CD18 monoclonal antibody therapy following subarachnoid hemorrhage in rabbits. J Neurosurg 2004, 101:88.
124. Clatterbuck R.E., Gailloud P., Ogata L., et al. Prevention of cerebral vasospasm by a humanized anti-CD11/CD18 monoclonal antibody administered after experimental subarachnoid hemorrhage in nonhuman primates. J Neurosurg 2003, 99:376.
125. Bavbek M., Polin R., Kwan A.L., et al. Monoclonal antibodies against ICAM-1 and CD18 attenuate cerebral vasospasm after experimental subarachnoid hemorrhage in rabbits. Stroke 1998, 29:1930.
126. Ascer E., Bertolami M.C., Venturinelli M.L., et al. Atorvastatin reduces proinflammatory markers in hypercholesterolemic patients. Atherosclerosis 2004, 177:161.
127. Chello M., Carassiti M., Agro F., et al. Simvastatin blunts the increase of circulating adhesion molecules after coronary artery bypass surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 2004, 18:605.
128. Tseng M.Y., Czosnyka M., Richards H., et al. Effects of acute treatment with pravastatin on cerebral vasospasm, autoregulation, and delayed ischemic deficits after aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage: a phase II randomized placebo-controlled trial. Stroke 2005, 36:1627.
129. Tseng M.Y., Hutchinson P.J., Czosnyka M., et al. Effects of acute pravastatin treatment on intensity of rescue therapy, length of inpatient stay, and 6-month outcome in patients after aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. Stroke 2007, 38:1545.
130. Parra A., Kreiter K.T., Williams S., et al. Effect of prior statin use on functional outcome and delayed vasospasm after acute aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage: a matched controlled cohort study. Neurosurgery 2005, 56:476.
131. Kramer A.H., Gurka M.J., Nathan B., et al. Statin use was not associated with less vasospasm or improved outcome after subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurosurgery 2008, 62:422.
132. McGirt M.J., Garces Ambrossi G.L., Huang J., et al. Simvastatin for the prevention of symptomatic cerebral vasospasm following aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage: a single-institution prospective cohort study. J Neurosurg 2009, 110:968.
133. Cheong J.H., Kim J.M., Bak K.H., et al. Correlation between cerebral vasospasm after subarachnoid hemorrhage and intracellular adhesion molecule-1 levels in serum and cerebrospinal fluid. J Korean Med Sci 2005, 38:1.
134. Mack W.J., Mocco J., Hoh D.J., et al. Outcome prediction with serum intercellular adhesion molecule-1 levels after aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. J Neurosurg 2002, 96:71.
135. Mocco J., Mack W.J., Kim G.H., et al. Rise in serum soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 levels with vasospasm following aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. J Neurosurg 2002, 97:537.
136. Oshiro E.M., Hoffman P.A., Dietsch G.N., et al. Inhibition of experimental vasospasm with anti-intercellular adhesion molecule-1 monoclonal antibody in rats. Stroke 1997, 28:2031.
137. Doo Y.C., Han S.J., Han S.W., et al. Effect of preexisting statin use on expression of C-reactive protein, adhesion molecules, interleukin-6, and antioxidized low-density lipoprotein antibody in patients with unstable angina undergoing coronary stenting. Clin Cardiol 2005, 28:72.
138. Koh K.K., Son J.W., Ahn J.Y., et al. Vascular effects of diet and statin in hypercholesterolemic patients. Int J Cardiol 2004, 95:185.
139. Rezaie-Majd A., Prager G.W., Bucek R.A., et al. Simvastatin reduces the expression of adhesion molecules in circulating monocytes from hypercholesterolemic patients. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2003, 23:397.
140. Lynch J.R., Wang H., McGirt M.J., et al. Simvastatin reduces vasospasm after aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage: results of a pilot randomized clinical trial. Stroke 2005, 36:2024.
141. Hofbauer R., Frass M., Gmeiner B., et al. Rapid, fluorescence-based assay for microtiter plates to test drug influences on neutrophil transmigration through endothelial cell monolayers. Life Sci 1999, 65:2453.
142. Frazier J.L., Pradilla G., Wang P.P., et al. Inhibition of cerebral vasospasm by intracranial delivery of ibuprofen from a controlled-release polymer in a rabbit model of subarachnoid hemorrhage. J Neurosurg 2004, 101:93.
143. Aihara Y., Kasuya H., Onda H., et al. Quantitative analysis of gene expressions related to inflammation in canine spastic artery after subarachnoid hemorrhage. Stroke 2001, 32:212.
144. Fassbender K., Hodapp B., Rossol S., et al. Inflammatory cytokines in subarachnoid haemorrhage: association with abnormal blood flow velocities in basal cerebral arteries. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2001, 70:534.
145. Gaetani P., Tartara F., Pignatti P., et al. Cisternal CSF levels of cytokines after subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurol Res 1998, 20:337.
146. Hendryk S., Jarzab B., Josko J. Increase of the IL-1 beta and IL-6 levels in CSF in patients with vasospasm following aneurysmal SAH. Neuro Endocrinol Lett 2004, 25:141.
147. Nam D.H., Kim J.S., Hong S.C., et al. Expression of interleukin-1 beta in lipopolysaccharide stimulated monocytes derived from patients with aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage is correlated with cerebral vasospasm. Neurosci Lett 2001, 312:41.
148. Schoch B., Regel J.P., Wichert M., et al. Analysis of intrathecal interleukin-6 as a potential predictive factor for vasospasm in subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurosurgery 2007, 60:828.
149. Wang Y., Zhong M., Tan X.X., et al. Expression change of interleukin-8 gene in rabbit basilar artery after subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurosci Bull 2007, 23:151.
150. Bowman G., Bonneau R.H., Chinchilli V.M., et al. A novel inhibitor of inflammatory cytokine production (CNI-1493) reduces rodent post-hemorrhagic vasospasm. Neurocrit Care 2006, 5:222.
151. Bowman G., Dixit S., Bonneau R.H., et al. Neutralizing antibody against interleukin-6 attenuates posthemorrhagic vasospasm in the rat femoral artery model. Neurosurgery 2004, 54:719.
152. Manning A.M., Davis R.J. Targeting JNK for therapeutic benefit: from junk to gold?. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2003, 2:554.
153. Yatsushige H., Yamaguchi M., Zhou C., et al. Role of c-Jun N-terminal kinase in cerebral vasospasm after experimental subarachnoid hemorrhage. Stroke 2005, 36:1538.
154. Cuzzocrea S. Shock, inflammation and PARP. Pharmacol Res 2005, 52:72.
155. Satoh M., Date I., Nakajima M., et al. Inhibition of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase attenuates cerebral vasospasm after subarachnoid hemorrhage in rabbits. Stroke 2001, 32:225.
156. Pluta R.M. Dysfunction of nitric oxide synthases as a cause and therapeutic target in delayed cerebral vasospasm after SAH. Neurol Res 2006, 28:730.
157. Cosby K., Partovi K.S., Crawford J.H., et al. Nitrite reduction to nitric oxide by deoxyhemoglobin vasodilates the human circulation. Nat Med 2003, 9:1498.
158. Weyerbrock A., Walbridge S., Pluta R.M., et al. Selective opening of the blood-tumor barrier by a nitric oxide donor and long-term survival in rats with C6 gliomas. J Neurosurg 2003, 99:728.
159. Pluta R.M. Delayed cerebral vasospasm and nitric oxide: review, new hypothesis, and proposed treatment. Pharmacol Ther 2005, 105:23.
160. Pluta R.M., Dejam A., Grimes G., et al. Nitrite infusions to prevent delayed cerebral vasospasm in a primate model of subarachnoid hemorrhage. JAMA 2005, 293:1477.
161. Gabikian P., Clatterbuck R.E., Eberhart C.G., et al. Prevention of experimental cerebral vasospasm by intracranial delivery of a nitric oxide donor from a controlled-release polymer: toxicity and efficacy studies in rabbits and rats. Stroke 2002, 33:2681.
162. Pradilla G., Thai Q.A., Legnani F.G., et al. Delayed intracranial delivery of a nitric oxide donor from a controlled-release polymer prevents experimental cerebral vasospasm in rabbits. Neurosurgery 2004, 55:1393.
163. Pluta R.M., Oldfield E.H., Boock R.J. Reversal and prevention of cerebral vasospasm by intracarotid infusions of nitric oxide donors in a primate model of subarachnoid hemorrhage. J Neurosurg 1997, 87:746.
164. Egemen N., Turker R.K., Sanlidilek U., et al. The effect of intrathecal sodium nitroprusside on severe chronic vasospasm. Neurol Res 1993, 15:310.
165. Inoue A., Yanagisawa M., Kimura S., et al. The human endothelin family: three structurally and pharmacologically distinct isopeptides predicted by three separate genes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1989, 86:2863.
166. Sakurai T., Yanagisawa M., Inoue A., et al. cDNA cloning, sequence analysis and tissue distribution of rat preproendothelin-1 mRNA. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1991, 175:44.
167. Mascia L., Fedorko L., Stewart D.J., et al. Temporal relationship between endothelin-1 concentrations and cerebral vasospasm in patients with aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. Stroke 2001, 32:1185.
168. Seifert V., Loffler B.M., Zimmermann M., et al. Endothelin concentrations in patients with aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. Correlation with cerebral vasospasm, delayed ischemic neurological deficits, and volume of hematoma. J Neurosurg 1995, 82:55.
169. Hamann G., Isenberg E., Strittmatter M., et al. Absence of elevation of big endothelin in subarachnoid hemorrhage. Stroke 1993, 24:383.
170. Yamaura I., Tani E., Maeda Y., et al. Endothelin-1 of canine basilar artery in vasospasm. J Neurosurg 1992, 76:99.
171. Clozel M., Breu V., Burri K., et al. Pathophysiological role of endothelin revealed by the first orally active endothelin receptor antagonist. Nature 1993, 365:759.
172. Zuccarello M., Boccaletti R., Romano A., et al. Endothelin B receptor antagonists attenuate subarachnoid hemorrhage-induced cerebral vasospasm. Stroke 1998, 29:1924.
173. Matsumura Y., Ikegawa R., Suzuki Y., et al. Phosphoramidon prevents cerebral vasospasm following subarachnoid hemorrhage in dogs: the relationship to endothelin-1 levels in the cerebrospinal fluid. Life Sci 1991, 49:841.
174. Cosentino F., McMahon E.G., Carter J.S., et al. Effect of endothelinA-receptor antagonist BQ-123 and phosphoramidon on cerebral vasospasm. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1993, 8(Suppl 22):S332.
175. Kordestani R.K., Counelis G.J., McBride D.Q., et al. Cerebral arterial spasm after penetrating craniocerebral gunshot wounds: transcranial Doppler and cerebral blood flow findings. Neurosurgery 1997, 41:351.
176. Oertel M., Boscardin W.J., Obrist W.D., et al. Posttraumatic vasospasm: the epidemiology, severity, and time course of an underestimated phenomenon: a prospective study performed in 299 patients. J Neurosurg 2005, 103:812.
177. Dulkerian S.J., Kilpatrick L., Costarino A.T., et al. Cytokine elevations in infants with bacterial and aseptic meningitis. J Pediatr 1995, 126:872.
178. Fassbender K., Ries S., Schminke U., et al. Inflammatory cytokines in CSF in bacterial meningitis: association with altered blood flow velocities in basal cerebral arteries. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1996, 61:57.
179. Fassbender K., Schminke U., Ries S., et al. Endothelial-derived adhesion molecules in bacterial meningitis: association to cytokine release and intrathecal leukocyte-recruitment. J Neuroimmunol 1997, 74:130.
180. Mukai A.O., Krebs V.L., Bertoli C.J., et al. TNF-alpha and IL-6 in the diagnosis of bacterial and aseptic meningitis in children. Pediatr Neurol 2006, 34:25.
181. Sethi S., Sharma P., Dikshit M. Nitric oxide- and oxygen-derived free radical generation from control and lipopolysaccharide-treated rat polymorphonuclear leukocyte. Nitric Oxide 2001, 5:482.
182. van Deuren M., van der Ven-Jongekrijg J., Bartelink A.K., et al. Correlation between proinflammatory cytokines and antiinflammatory mediators and the severity of disease in meningococcal infections. J Infect Dis 1995, 172:433.
183. Pigott R., Dillon L.P., Hemingway I.H., et al. Soluble forms of E-selectin, ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 are present in the supernatants of cytokine activated cultured endothelial cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1992, 187:584.
184. Egge A., Waterloo K., Sjoholm H., et al. Prophylactic hyperdynamic postoperative fluid therapy after aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage: a clinical, prospective, randomized, controlled study. Neurosurgery 2001, 49:593.
185. Feigin V.L., Rinkel G.J., Algra A., et al. Calcium antagonists in patients with aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage: a systematic review. Neurology 1998, 50:876.
186. Suarez J.I., Shannon L., Zaidat O.O., et al. Effect of human albumin administration on clinical outcome and hospital cost in patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage. J Neurosurg 2004, 100:585.
187. Keyrouz S.G., Diringer M.N. Clinical review: prevention and therapy of vasospasm in subarachnoid hemorrhage. Crit Care 2007, 11:220.
188. Rinkel G.J., Feigin V.L., Algra A., et al. Circulatory volume expansion therapy for aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2004, CD000483.
189. Hoh B.L., Ogilvy C.S. Endovascular treatment of cerebral vasospasm: transluminal balloon angioplasty, intra-arterial papaverine, and intra-arterial nicardipine. Neurosurg Clin N Am 2005, 16:501.
190. Muizelaar J.P., Zwienenberg M., Rudisill N.A., et al. The prophylactic use of transluminal balloon angioplasty in patients with Fisher Grade 3 subarachnoid hemorrhage: a pilot study. J Neurosurg 1999, 91:51.
191. Kinouchi H., Ogasawara K., Shimizu H., et al. Prevention of symptomatic vasospasm after aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage by intraoperative cisternal fibrinolysis using tissue-type plasminogen activator combined with continuous cisternal drainage. Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo) 2004, 44:569.
192. Klimo P., Kestle J.R., MacDonald J.D., et al. Marked reduction of cerebral vasospasm with lumbar drainage of cerebrospinal fluid after subarachnoid hemorrhage. J Neurosurg 2004, 100:215.
193. Findlay J.M., Kassell N.F., Weir B.K., et al. A randomized trial of intraoperative, intracisternal tissue plasminogen activator for the prevention of vasospasm. Neurosurgery 1995, 37:168.
194. Pickard J.D., Murray G.D., Illingworth R., et al. Effect of oral nimodipine on cerebral infarction and outcome after subarachnoid haemorrhage: British aneurysm nimodipine trial. BMJ 1989, 298:636.
195. Haley E.C., Kassell N.F., Apperson-Hansen C., et al. A randomized, double-blind, vehicle-controlled trial of tirilazad mesylate in patients with aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage: a cooperative study in North America. J Neurosurg 1997, 86:467.
196. Kassell N.F., Haley E.C., Apperson-Hansen C., et al. Randomized, double-blind, vehicle-controlled trial of tirilazad mesylate in patients with aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage: a cooperative study in Europe, Australia, and New Zealand. J Neurosurg 1996, 84:221.
197. Polin R.S., Hansen C.A., German P., et al. Intra-arterially administered papaverine for the treatment of symptomatic cerebral vasospasm. Neurosurgery 1998, 42:1256.
198. Vajkoczy P., Horn P., Bauhuf C., et al. Effect of intra-arterial papaverine on regional cerebral blood flow in hemodynamically relevant cerebral vasospasm. Stroke 2001, 32:498.
199. Kasuya H., Onda H., Sasahara A., et al. Application of nicardipine prolonged-release implants: analysis of 97 consecutive patients with acute subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurosurgery 2005, 56:895.
200. Vajkoczy P., Meyer B., Weidauer S., et al. Clazosentan (AXV-034343), a selective endothelin A receptor antagonist, in the prevention of cerebral vasospasm following severe aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage: results of a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter phase IIa study. J Neurosurg 2005, 103:9.
201. Chaichana K.L., Levy A.P., Miller-Lotan R., et al. Haptoglobin 2-2 genotype determines chronic vasospasm after experimental subarachnoid hemorrhage. Stroke 2007, 38:3266.
202. Dorsch N.W. Cerebral arterial spasm--a clinical review. Br J Neurosurg 1995, 9:403.