Molecular typing and epidemiological insights

Pneumocystis Pneumonia: Third Edition, Revised and Expanded

Volumn , Issue , 2004, Pages 479-504

  Beard, Charles Ben ^a  

^a NATIONAL CENTER FOR EMERGING AND ZOONOTIC INFECTIOUS DISEASES   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 75149112652     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Chapter

References (138)

1. Faust E, Russell P, Jung R. Craig and Faust’s Clinical Parasitology, Lea & Febiger. 1970:890.
2. Dei-Cas E. Pneumocystis infections: the iceberg?. Med Mycol 2000; 38(suppl 1): 23-32.
3. CDC. Update: acquired immunodeficiency syndrome—United States. MMWR 1986; 35:757-760, 765-766.
4. CDC. Guidelines for prophylaxis against Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia for persons infected with human immunodeficiency virus. MMWR 1989; 38(suppl 5): 1-9.
5. Stringer JR, Beard CB, Miller RF, Wakefield AE. A new name (Pneumocystis jiroveci) for Pneumocystis from humans. Emerg Infect Dis 2002; 8:891-896.
6. Morris A, Beard CB, Huang L. Update on the epidemiology and transmission of Pneumocystis carinii. Microbes Infect 2002; 4:95-103.
7. Wakefield AE. Pneumocystis carinii. Br Med Bull 2002; 61:175-188.
8. Wakefield AE, Pixley FJ, Banerji S, et al. Detection of Pneumocystis carinii with DNA amplification. Lancet 1990; 336:451-453.
9. Lundgren B, Wakefield AE. PCR for detecting Pneumocystis carinii in clinical or environmental samples. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 1998; 22:97-101.
10. Lu JJ, Chen CH, Bartlett MS, Smith JW, Lee CH. Comparison of six different PCR methods for detection of Pneumocystis carinii. J Clin Microbiol 1995; 33: 2785-2788.
11. Tamburrini E, Mencarini P, Visconti E, et al. Potential impact of Pneumocystis genetic diversity on the molecular detection of the parasite in human host. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 1998; 22:37-49.
12. Keely SP, Stringer JR, Baughman RP, Linke MJ, Walzer PD, Smulian AG. Genetic variation among Pneumocystis carinii hominis isolates in recurrent pneumocystosis. J Infect Dis 1995; 172:595-598.
13. Keely SP, Baughman RP, Smulian AG, Dohn MN, Stringer JR. Source of Pneumocystis carinii in recurrent episodes of pneumonia in AIDS patients. AIDS 1996; 10:881-888.
14. Vargas SL, Ponce CA, Gigliotti F, et al. Transmission of Pneumocystis carinii DNA from a patient with P. carinii pneumonia to immunocompetent contact health care workers. J Clin Microbiol 2000; 38:1536-1538.
15. Miller RF, Ambrose HE, Wakefield AE. Pneumocystis carinii f. sp. hominis DNA in immunocompetent health care workers in contact with patients with P. carinii pneumonia. J Clin Microbiol 2001; 39:3877-3882.
16. Beard CB, Carter JL, Keely SP, et al. Genetic variation in Pneumocystis carinii isolates from different geographic regions: implications for transmission. Emerg Infect Dis 2000; 6:265-272.
17. Sing A, Roggenkamp A, Autenrieth IB, Heesemann J. Pneumocystis carinii carriage in immunocompetent patients with primary pulmonary disorders as detected by single or nested PCR. J Clin Microbiol 1999; 37:3409-3410.
18. Sing A, Trebesius K, Roggenkamp A, et al. Evaluation of diagnostic value and epidemiological implications of PCR for Pneumocystis carinii in different immuno-suppressed and immunocompetent patient groups. J Clin Microbiol 2000; 38: 1461-1467.
19. Nevez G, Raccurt C, Vincent P, Jounieaux V, Dei-Cas E. Pulmonary colonization with Pneumocystis carinii in human immunodeficiency virus-negative patients: assessing risk with blood CD4+ T cell counts. Clin Infect Dis 1999; 29:1331-1332.
20. Nevez G, Guyot K, Totet A, Raccurt C, Dei-Cas E. Pulmonary colonisation with Pneumocystis carinii in an immunosuppressed HIV-negative patient: detection and typing of the fungus by PCR. J Med Microbiol 2001; 50:198-200.
21. Vargas SL, Hughes WT, Santolaya ME, et al. Search for primary infection by Pneumocystis carinii in a cohort of normal, healthy infants. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 32:855-861.
22. Wakefield AE, Lindley AR, Ambrose HE, Denis CM, Miller RF. Limited asymptomatic carriage of Pneumocystis jiroveci in HIV infected patients. J Infect Dis 2003; 187:901-908.
23. Wakefield AE. DNA sequences identical to Pneumocystis carinii f. sp. carinii and Pneumocystis carinii f. sp. hominis in samples of air spora. J Clin Microbiol 1996; 34:1754-1759.
24. Casanova-Cardiel L, Leibowitz MJ. Presence of Pneumocystis carinii DNA in pond water. J Eukaryot Microbiol 1997; 44:28S.
25. McCullough KA, Fox MR, Groner G, et al. Evaluation of potential behavioral and household risk factors for Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia (abstr). Presented at the annual meeting of the American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, Denver, CO, November 2002.
26. Olsson M, Lidman C, Latouche S, et al. Identification of Pneumocystis carinii f. sp. hominis gene sequences in filtered air in hospital environments. J Clin Microbiol 1998; 36:1737-1740.
27. Bartlett MS, Vermund SH, Jacobs R, et al. Detection of Pneumocystis carinii DNA in air samples: likely environmental risk to susceptible persons. J Clin Microbiol 1997; 35:2511-2513.
28. Tsolaki AG, Miller RF, Wakefield AE. Oropharyngeal samples for genotyping and monitoring response to treatment in AIDS patients with Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. J Med Microbiol 1999; 48:897-905.
29. Fischer S, Gill VJ, Kovacs J, et al. The use of oral washes to diagnose Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia: a blinded prospective study using a polymerase chain reaction-based detection system. J Infect Dis 2001; 184:1485-1488.
30. Matos O, Costa MC, Lundgren B, Caldeira L, Aguiar P, Antunes F. Effect of oral washes on the diagnosis of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia with a low parasite burden and on detection of organisms in subclinical infections. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2001; 20:573-575.
31. Miller RF, Wakefield AE. Pneumocystis carinii genotypes and severity of pneumonia. Lancet 1999; 353:2039-2040.
32. Hunter JA, Wakefield AE. Genetic divergence at the mitochondrial small subunit ribosomal RNA gene among isolates of Pneumocystis carinii from five mammalian host species. J Eukaryot Microbiol 1996; 43:24S-25S.
33. Tsolaki AG, Beckers P, Wakefield AE. Pre-AIDS era isolates of Pneumocystis carinii f. sp. hominis: high genotype similarity with contemporary isolates. J Clin Microbiol 1998; 36:90-93.
34. Chan C, Montaner J, Lefebvre EA, et al. Atovaquone suspension compared with aerosolized pentamidine for prevention of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in human immunodeficiency virus-infected subjects intolerant of trimethoprim or sulfonamides. J Infect Dis 1999; 180:369-376.
35. Walker DJ, Wakefield AE, Dohn MN, et al. Sequence polymorphisms in the Pneumocystis carinii cytochrome b gene and their association with atovaquone prophylaxis failure. J Infect Dis 1998; 178:1767-1775.
36. Kazanjian P, Armstrong W, Hossler PA, et al. Pneumocystis carinii cytochrome b mutations are associated with atovaquone exposure in patients with AIDS. J Infect Dis 2001; 183:819-822.
37. Lu JJ, Bartlett MS, Shaw MM, Smith JW, Lee CH. Typing of Pneumocystis carinii strains that infect humans based on nucleotide sequence variations of internal transcribed spacers of rRNA genes. J Eukaryot Microbiol 1994; 41:102S.
38. Wakefield AE. Genetic heterogeneity in Pneumocystis carinii: an introduction. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 1998; 22:5-13.
39. Lee CH, Helweg-Larsen J, Tang X, et al. Update on Pneumocystis carinii f. sp. hominis typing based on nucleotide sequence variations in internal transcribed spacer regions of rRNA genes. J Clin Microbiol 1998; 36:734-741.
40. Nimri LF, Moura IN, Huang L, et al. Genetic diversity of Pneumocystis carinii f. sp. hominis based on variations in nucleotide sequences of internal transcribed spacers of rRNA genes. J Clin Microbiol 2002; 40:1146-1151.
41. Tsolaki AG, Miller RF, Underwood AP, Banerji S, Wakefield AE. Genetic diversity at the internal transcribed spacer regions of the rRNA operon among isolates of Pneumocystis carinii from AIDS patients with recurrent pneumonia. J Infect Dis 1996; 174:141-156.
42. Keely SP, Stringer JR. Sequences of Pneumocystis carinii f. sp. hominis strains associated with recurrent pneumonia vary at multiple loci. J Clin Microbiol 1997; 35:2745-2747.
43. Latouche S, Poirot JL, Bernard C, Roux P. Study of internal transcribed spacer and mitochondrial large-subunit genes of Pneumocystis carinii hominis isolated by repeated bronchoalveolar lavage from human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients during one or several episodes of pneumonia. J Clin Microbiol 1997; 35: 1687-1690.
44. Helweg-Larsen J, Tsolaki AG, Miller RF, Lundgren B, Wakefield AE. Clusters of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia: analysis of person-to-person transmission by genotyping. QJM 1998; 91:813-820.
45. Hauser PM, Blanc DS, Bille J, Nahimana A, Francioli P. Carriage of Pneumocystis carinii by immunosuppressed patients and molecular typing of the organisms. AIDS 2000; 14:461-463.
46. Hosoya N, Takahashi T, Wada M, et al. Genotyping of Pneumocystis carinii f. sp. hominis isolates in Japan based on nucleotide sequence variations in internal transcribed spacer regions of rRNA genes. Microbiol Immunol 2000; 44:591-596.
47. Hauser PM, Blanc DS, Sudre P, et al. Genetic diversity of Pneumocystis carinii in HIV-positive and -negative patients as revealed by PCR-SSCP typing. AIDS 2001; 15:461-466.
48. Miller RF, Ambrose HE, Novelli V, Wakefield AE. Probable mother-to-infant transmission of Pneumocystis carinii f. sp. hominis infection. J Clin Microbiol 2002; 40:1555-1557.
49. Walzer PD, Foy J, Steele P, et al. Activities of antifolate, antiviral, and other drugs in an immunosuppressed rat model of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1992; 36:1935-1942.
50. Martin JN, Rose DA, Hadley WK, Perdreau-Remington F, Lam PK, Gerberding JL. Emergence of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole resistance in the AIDS era. J Infect Dis 1999; 180:1809-1818.
51. Meshnick SR. Drug-resistant Pneumocystis carinii. Lancet 1999; 354:1318-1319.
52. Edman JC, Edman U, Cao M, Lundgren B, Kovacs JA, Santi DV. Isolation and expression of the Pneumocystis carinii dihydrofolate reductase gene. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1989; 86:8625-8629.
53. Ma L, Borio L, Masur H, Kovacs JA. Pneumocystis carinii dihydropteroate synthase but not dihydrofolate reductase gene mutations correlate with prior trimethoprimsulfamethoxazole or dapsone use. J Infect Dis 1999; 180:1969-1978.
54. Takahashi T, Endo T, Nakamura T, et al. Dihydrofolate reductase gene polymorphisms in Pneumocystis carinii f. sp. hominis in Japan. J Med Microbiol 2002; 51: 510-515.
55. Larsen HH, Kovacs JA, Stock F, et al. Development of a rapid real-time PCR assay for quantitation of Pneumocystis carinii f. sp. carinii. J Clin Microbiol 2002; 40: 2989-2993.
56. Lane BR, Ast JC, Hossler PA, et al. Dihydropteroate synthase polymorphisms in Pneumocystis carinii. J Infect Dis 1997; 175:482-485.
57. Kazanjian P, Locke AB, Hossler PA, et al. Pneumocystis carinii mutations associated with sulfa and sulfone prophylaxis failures in AIDS patients. AIDS 1998; 12: 873-878.
58. Armstrong WN, Meshnick S, Kazanjian P. Pneumocystis carinii mutations associated with sulfa and sulfone prophylaxis failures in immunocompromised patients. Microbes Infect 2000; 2:61-67.
59. Mei Q, Gurunathan S, Masur H, Kovacs JA. Failure of co-trimoxazole in Pneumocystis carinii infection and mutations in dihydropteroate synthase gene. Lancet 1998; 351:1631-1632.
60. Helweg-Larsen J, Benfield TL, Eugen-Olsen J, Lundgren JD, Lundgren B. Effects of mutations in Pneumocystis carinii dihydropteroate synthase gene on outcome of AIDS-associated P. carinii pneumonia. Lancet 1999; 354:1347-1351.
61. Huang L, Beard CB, Creasman J, et al. Sulfa or sulfone prophylaxis and geographic region predict mutations in the Pneumocystis carinii dihydropteroate synthase gene. J Infect Dis 2000; 182:1192-1198.
62. Kazanjian P, Armstrong W, Hossler PA, et al. Pneumocystis carinii mutations are associated with duration of sulfa or sulfone prophylaxis exposure in AIDS patients. J Infect Dis 2000; 182:551-557.
63. Takahashi T, Hosoya N, Endo T, et al. Relationship between mutations in dihydropteroate synthase of Pneumocystis carinii f. sp. hominis isolates in Japan and resistance to sulfonamide therapy. J Clin Microbiol 2000; 38:3161-3164.
64. Navin TR, Beard CB, Huang L, et al. Effect of mutations in Pneumocystis carinii dihydropteroate synthase gene on outcome of P carinii pneumonia in patients with HIV-1: a prospective study. Lancet 2001; 358:545-549.
65. Ma L, Kovacs JA, Cargnel A, Valerio A, Fantoni G, Atzori C. Mutations in the dihydropteroate synthase gene of human-drived Pneumocystis carinii isolates from Italy are infrequent but correlate with prior sulfa prophylaxis. J Infect Dis 2002; 185:1530-1532.
66. Bozzette SA, Finkelstein DM, Spector SA, et al. A randomized trial of three antiPneumocystis agents in patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection. NIAID AIDS Clinical Trials Group. N Engl J Med 1995; 332:693-699.
67. El-Sadr WM, Luskin-Hawk R, Yurik TM, et al. A randomized trial of daily and thrice-weekly trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole for the prevention of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in human immunodeficiency virus-infected persons. Terry Berin Community Programs for Clinical Research on AIDS (CPCRA). Clin Infect Dis 1999; 29:775-783.
68. Moorman AC, Von Bargen JC, Palella FJ, Holmberg SD. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia incidence and chemoprophylaxis failure in ambulatory HIV-infected patients. HIV Outpatient Study (HOPS) Investigators. J AIDS Hum Retrovir 1998; 19:182-188.
69. Barry SM, Johnson MA. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia: a review of current issues in diagnosis and management. HIV Med 2001; 2:123-132.
70. Radding JA, Armstrong MY, Ullu E, Richards FF. Identification and isolation of a major cell surface glycoprotein of Pneumocystis carinii. Infect Immun 1989; 57: 2149-2157.
71. Gigliotti F, Ballou LR, Hughes WT, Mosley BD. Purification and initial characterization of a ferret Pneumocystis carinii surface antigen. J Infect Dis 1988; 158: 848-854.
72. Lundgren B, Lipschik GY, Kovacs JA. Purification and characterization of a major human Pneumocystis carinii surface antigen. J Clin Invest 1991; 87:163-170.
73. Zimmerman PE, Voelker DR, McCormack FX, Paulsrud JR, Martin WJ. 120-kD surface glycoprotein of Pneumocystis carinii is a ligand for surfactant protein A. J Clin Invest 1992; 89:143-149.
74. Pottratz ST, Paulsrud JR, Smith JS, Martin WJ. Evidence for Pneumocystis carinii binding to a cell-free substrate: role of the adhesive protein fibronectin. J Lab Clin Med 1994; 123:273-281.
75. Stringer JR, Keely SP. Genetics of surface antigen expression in Pneumocystis carinii. Infect Immun 2001; 69:627-639.
76. Limper AH, Standing JE, Hoffman OA, Castro M, Neese LW. Vitronectin binds to Pneumocystis carinii and mediates organism attachment to cultured lung epithelial cells. Infect Immun 1993; 61:4302-4309.
77. Vuk-Pavlovic Z, Standing JE, Crouch EC, Limper AH. Carbohydrate recognition domain of surfactant protein D mediates interactions with Pneumocystis carinii glycoprotein A. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2001; 24:475-484.
78. Haidaris PJ, Wright TW, Gigliotti F, Haidaris CG. Expression and characterization of a cDNA clone encoding an immunodominant surface glycoprotein of Pneumocystis carinii. J Infect Dis 1992; 166:1113-1123.
79. Kovacs JA, Powell F, Edman JC, et al. Multiple genes encode the major surface glycoprotein of Pneumocystis carinii. J Biol Chem 1993; 268:6034-6040.
80. Garbe TR, Stringer JR. Molecular characterization of clustered variants of genes encoding major surface antigens of human Pneumocystis carinii. Infect Immun 1994; 62:3092-3101.
81. Wright TW, Bissoondial TY, Haidaris CG, Gigliotti F, Haidaris PJ. Isoform diversity and tandem duplication of the glycoprotein A gene in ferret Pneumocystis carinii. DNA Res 1995; 2:77-88.
82. Sunkin SM, Stringer JR. Residence at the expression site is necessary and sufficient for the transcription of surface antigen genes of Pneumocystis carinii. Mol Microbiol 1997; 25:147-160.
83. Kutty G, Ma L, Kovacs JA. Characterization of the expression site of the major surface glycoprotein of human-derived Pneumocystis carinii. Mol Microbiol 2001; 42:183-193.
84. Daly KR, Fichtenbaum CJ, Tanaka R, et al. Serologic responses to epitopes of the major surface glycoprotein of Pneumocystis jiroveci differ in human immunodeficiency virus-infected and uninfected persons. J Infect Dis 2002; 186:644-651.
85. Wada M, Nakamura Y. MSG gene cluster encoding major cell surface glycoproteins of rat Pneumocystis carinii. DNA Res 1994; 1:163-168.
86. Huang SN, Fischer SH, O’Shaughnessy E, Gill VJ, Masur H, Kovacs JA. Development of a PCR assay for diagnosis of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia based on amplification of the multicopy major surface glycoprotein gene family. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 1999; 35:27-32.
87. Larsen HH, Masur H, Kovacs JA, et al. Development and evaluation of a quantitative, touch-down, real-time PCR assay for diagnosing Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. J Clin Microbiol 2002; 40:490-494.
88. Ma L, Kutty G, Jia Q, et al. Analysis of variation in tandem repeats in the intron of the major surface glycoprotein expression site of the human form of Pneumocystis carinii. J Infect Dis 2002; 186:1647-1654.
89. Stedman TT, Butler DR, Buck GA. The HSP70 gene family in Pneumocystis carinii: molecular and phylogenetic characterization of cytoplasmic members. J Eukaryot Microbiol 1998; 45:589-599.
90. Maher N, Vermund S, Lasbury M, Lee C, Bartlett M, Unnasch TR. Development and evaluation of a molecular viability assay for Pneumocystis carinii. J Clin Microbiol 2000; 38:1947-1952.
91. Maher NH, Vermund SH, Welsh DA, Dillon HK, Awooda A, Unnasch TR. Development and characterization of a molecular viability assay for Pneumocystis carinii f sp hominis. J Infect Dis 2001; 183:1825-1827.
92. Hauser PM, Blanc DS, Bille J, Telenti A, Francioli P. Development of a molecular typing method for Pneumocystis carinii sp. f. hominis. APMIS Suppl 1997; 77: 7-10.
93. Weinberg GA, Edlind TD, Lu JJ, Lee CH, Bauer NL, Durant PJ. Genetic diversity of Pneumocystis carinii from different host species at the beta-tubulin gene locus and at the internal transcribed spacer regions of the rRNA gene cluster. J Eukaryot Microbiol 1994; 41:118S.
94. Banerji S, Lugli EB, Miller RF, Wakefield AE. Analysis of genetic diversity at the arom locus in isolates of Pneumocystis carinii. J Eukaryot Microbiol 1995; 42: 675-679.
95. Latouche S, Ortona E, Mazars E, et al. Biodiversity of Pneumocystis carinii hominis: typing with different DNA regions. J Clin Microbiol 1997; 35:383-387.
96. Denis CM, Mazars E, Guyot K, et al. Genetic divergence at the SODA locus of six different formae speciales of Pneumocystis carinii. Med Mycol 2000; 38: 289-300.
97. Hauser PM, Francioli P, Bille J, Telenti A, Blanc DS. Typing of Pneumocystis carinii f. sp. hominis by single-strand conformation polymorphism of four genomic regions. J Clin Microbiol 1997; 35:3086-3091.
98. Nahimana A, Blanc DS, Francioli P, Bille J, Hauser PM. Typing of Pneumocystis carinii f. sp. hominis by PCR-SSCP to indicate a high frequency of co-infections. J Med Microbiol 2000; 49:753-758.
99. Hong ST, Steele PE, Cushion MT, Walzer PD, Stringer SL, Stringer JR. Pneumocystis carinii karyotypes. J Clin Microbiol 1990; 28:1785-1795.
100. Cushion MT, Kaselis M, Stringer SL, Stringer JR. Genetic stability and diversity of Pneumocystis carinii infecting rat colonies. Infect Immun 1993; 61:4801-4813.
101. Stringer JR, Stringer SL, Zhang J, B aughman R, Smulian AG, Cushion MT. Molecular genetic distinction of Pneumocystis carinii from rats and humans. J Eukaryot Microbiol 1993; 40:733-741.
102. Zhang J, Cushion MT, Stringer JR. Molecular characterization of a novel repetitive element from Pneumocystis carinii from rats. J Clin Microbiol 1993; 31:244-248.
103. Weinberg GA, Durant PJ. Genetic diversity of Pneumocystis carinii derived from infected rats, mice, ferrets, and cell cultures. J Eukaryot Microbiol 1994; 41: 223-228.
104. Stringer JR, Cushion MT. The genome of Pneumocystis carinii. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 1998; 22:15-26.
105. Mazars E, Odberg-Ferragut C, Durand I, Tibayrenc M, Dei-Cas E, Camus D. Genomic and isoenzymatic markers of Pneumocystis from different host species. J Eukar-yot Microbiol 1994; 41:104S.
106. Dei-Cas E, Mazars E, Ferragut CO, et al. Ultrastructural, genomic, isoenzymatic and biological features make it possible to distinguish rabbit Pneumocystis from other mammal Pneumocystis strains. J Eukaryot Microbiol 1994; 41:84S.
107. Mazars E, Guyot K, Durand I, et al. Isoenzyme diversity in Pneumocystis carinii from rats, mice, and rabbits. J Infect Dis 1997; 175:655-660.
108. Jiang B, Lu JJ, Li B, et al. Development of type-specific PCR for typing Pneumocystis carinii f. sp. hominis based on nucleotide sequence variations of internal transcribed spacer region of rRNA genes. J Clin Microbiol 1996; 34:3245-3248.
109. Baughman RP, Keely SP, Dohn MN, Stringer JR. The use of genetic markers to characterize transmission of Pneumocystis carinii. AIDS Patient Care STDS 1997; 11:131-138.
110. Dumoulin A, Mazars E, Seguy N, et al. Transmission of Pneumocystis carinii disease from immunocompetent contacts of infected hosts to susceptible hosts. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2000; 19:671-678.
111. Lee CH, Lu JJ, Bartlett MS, et al. Nucleotide sequence variation in Pneumocystis carinii strains that infect humans. J Clin Microbiol 1993; 31:754-757.
112. Wakefield AE, Fritscher CC, Malin AS, Gwanzura L, Hughes WT, Miller RF. Genetic diversity in human-derived Pneumocystis carinii isolates from four geographical locations shown by analysis of mitochondrial rRNA gene sequences. J Clin Microbiol 1994; 32:2959-2961.
113. Hauser PM, Blanc DS, Bille J, Francioli P. Typing methods to approach Pneumocystis carinii genetic heterogeneity. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 1998; 22: 27-35.
114. Nahimana A, Cushion MT, Blanc DS, Hauser PM. Rapid PCR-single-strand conformation polymorphism method to differentiate and estimate relative abundance of Pneumocystis carinii special forms infecting rats. J Clin Microbiol 2001; 39: 4563-4565.
115. Hauser PM, Sudre P, Nahimana A, Francioli P. Prophylaxis failure is associated with a specific Pneumocystis carinii genotype. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 33:1080-1082.
116. Manoloff ES, Francioli P, Taffe P, Van Melle G, Bille J, Hauser PM. Risk for Pneumocystis carinii transmission among patients with pneumonia: a molecular epidemiology study. Emerg Infect Dis 2003; 9:132-134.
117. Ma L, Kovacs JA. Rapid detection of mutations in the human-derived Pneumocystis carinii dihydropteroate synthase gene associated with sulfa resistance. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2001; 45:776-780.
118. Helweg-Larsen J, Eugen-Olsen J, Lundgren B. Rapid detection of dihydropteroate polymorphism in AIDS-related Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia by restriction fragment length polymorphism. Scand J Infect Dis 2000; 32:481-483.
119. Costa MC, Helweg-Larsen J, Antunes F, Lungren B, Diogo J, Matos O. PCR-RFLP analysis of the DHPS gene for the study of resistance of Pneumocystis carinii to sulpha drugs in patients with co-infection PCP/HIV. J Eukaryot Microbiol Suppl 2001:148S-149S.
120. Hughes WT. Current issues in the epidemiology, transmission, and reactivation of Pneumocystis carinii. Semin Respir Infect 1998; 13:283-288.
121. Kovacs JA, Gill VJ, Meshnick S, Masur H. New insights into transmission, diagnosis, and drug treatment of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. JAMA 2001; 286: 2450-2460.
122. Beard CB, Hauser PM, Roux P, et al. Strain typing methods for Pneumocystis jiroveci and the applications to molecular epidemiologic studies. Emerg Infect Dis 2004; In press.
123. Edman JC, Kovacs JA, Masur H, Santi DV, Elwood HJ, Sogin ML. Ribosomal RNA sequence shows Pneumocystis carinii to be a member of the fungi. Nature 1988; 334:519-522.
124. Stringer SL, Stringer JR, Blase MA, Walzer PD, Cushion MT. Pneumocystis carinii: sequence from ribosomal RNA implies a close relationship with fungi. Exp Parasitol 1989; 68:450-461.
125. Simonds RJ, Oxtoby MJ, Caldwell MB, Gwinn ML, Rogers MF. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia among US children with perinatally acquired HIV infection. JAMA 1993; 270:470-473.
126. Chokephaibulkit K, Wanachiwanawin D, Chearskul S, et al. Pneumocystis carinii severe pneumonia among human immunodeficiency virus-infected children in Thailand: the effect of a primary prophylaxis strategy. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1999; 18:147-52.
127. Zar HJ, Dechaboon A, Hanslo D, Apolles P, Magnus KG, Hussey G. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in South African children infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2000; 19:603-607.
128. Soulez B, Dei-Cas E, Charet P, Mougeot G, Caillaux M, Camus D. The young rabbit: a nonimmunosuppressed model for Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. J Infect Dis 1989; 160:355-356.
129. Cere N, Polack B, Chanteloup NK, Coudert P. Natural transmission of Pneumocystis carinii in nonimmunosuppressed animals: early contagiousness of experimentally infected rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus). J Clin Microbiol 1997; 35:2670-2672.
130. Cere N, Polack B. Animal pneumocystosis: a model for man. Vet Res 1999; 30: 1-26.
131. Dei-Cas E, Brun-Pascaud M, Bille-Hansen V, Allaert A, Aliouat EM. Animal models of pneumocystosis. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 1998; 22:163-168.
132. Icenhour CR, Rebholz SL, Collins MS, Cushion MT. Early acquisition of Pneumocystis carinii in neonatal rats as evidenced by PCR and oral swabs. Eukaryot Cell 2002; 1:414-419.
133. Vargas SL, Ponce CA, Hughes WT, et al. Association of primary Pneumocystis carinii infection and sudden infant death syndrome. Clin Infect Dis 1999; 29: 1489-1493.
134. Beard CB, Fox MR, Guarner J, et al. Genetic differences in Pneumocystis jiroveci isolates from immunocompetent infants and from adults with AIDS—implications toward transmission cycles. Unpublished data.
135. Stagno S, Pifer LL, Hughes WT, Brasfield DM, Tiller RE. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonitis in young immunocompetent infants. Pediatrics 1980; 66:56-62.
136. Armbruster C, Hassl A, Kriwanek S. Pneumocystis carinii colonization in the absence of immunosuppression. Scand J Infect Dis 1997; 29:591-593.
137. Visconti E, Ortona E, Mencarini P, et al. Mutations in dihydropteroate synthase gene of Pneumocystis carinii in HIV patients with Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2001; 18:547-551.
138. Edman U, Edman JC, Lundgren B, Santi DV. Isolation and expression of the Pneumocystis carinii thymidylate synthase gene. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1989; 86: 6503-6507.