Type 1 diabetes and autoimmune polyglandular syndrome: A clinical review

Netherlands Journal of Medicine

Volumn 67, Issue 11, 2009, Pages 376-387

  Van Den Driessche, A ^a   Eenkhoorn, V ^a   Van Gaal, L ^a   De Block, C ^a  

^a ANTWERP UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (Belgium)

Author keywords

Autoantibodies; Autoimmune polyglandular syndrome; Type 1 diabetes mellitus

Indexed keywords

CORTICOSTEROID; LEVOTHYROXINE SODIUM; PARIETAL CELL ANTIBODY; PROPYLTHIOURACIL; PROTEIN GLUTAMINE GAMMA GLUTAMYLTRANSFERASE ANTIBODY; RADIOACTIVE IODINE; THIAMAZOLE; THYROID PEROXIDASE ANTIBODY; THYROTROPIN RECEPTOR ANTIBODY;

ADDISON DISEASE; ANTIBODY DETECTION; AUTOIMMUNE GASTRITIS; AUTOIMMUNE POLYENDOCRINOPATHY CANDIDIASIS ECTODERMAL DYSTROPHY; CELIAC DISEASE; CLINICAL FEATURE; DIABETES CONTROL; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; FOLLOW UP; GASTRITIS; GLUTEN FREE DIET; GOITER; GRAVES DISEASE; HASHIMOTO DISEASE; HUMAN; HYPERLIPIDEMIA; HYPOTHYROIDISM; INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; MENSTRUATION; NONHUMAN; PERNICIOUS ANEMIA; PREGNANCY OUTCOME; PREVALENCE; REVIEW; SCREENING; THYROID SURGERY; ULTRAVIOLET B RADIATION; VITILIGO; WEIGHT GAIN;

ADDISON DISEASE; AFTERCARE; ALGORITHMS; ANEMIA, PERNICIOUS; CELIAC DISEASE; DIABETES MELLITUS, TYPE 1; EARLY DIAGNOSIS; GASTRITIS; GRAVES DISEASE; HASHIMOTO DISEASE; HUMANS; MASS SCREENING; POLYENDOCRINOPATHIES, AUTOIMMUNE; PREVALENCE; RISK FACTORS; VITILIGO;

EID: 74849134104     PISSN: 03002977     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (134)

1. Eisenbarth GS. Type 1 diabetes mellitus - a chronic autoimmune disease. N Engl J Med. 1986;314:1360-8.
2. Barker JM. Clinical review: Type 1 diabetes associated autoimmunity: natural history, genetic associations, and screening. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;91:1210-7.
3. Eisenbarth GS, Gottlieb PA. Autoimmune Polyendocrine Syndromes. N Engl J Med. 2004;350:2068-79.
4. De Block C, De Leeuw I, Vertommen J, et al. The Belgian Diabetes Registry. β-cell, thyroid, gastric, adrenal and coeliac autoimmunity and HLA-DQ types in type 1 diabetes. Clin Exp Immunol. 2001;126:236-41.
5. Barker JM, Yu J, Yu L, et al. Autoantibody "subspecificity" in type 1 diabetes: risk for organ-specific autoimmunity clusters in distinct groups. Diabetes Care. 2005;28:850-5.
6. Landin-Olsson M, Karlsson FA, Lernmark A, Sundkvist G. Diabetes Incidence Study in Sweden Group. Islet cell and thyrogastric antibodies in 633 consecutive 15- to 34-yr-old patients in the Diabetes Incidence Study in Sweden. Diabetes. 1992;41:1022-7.
7. Maclaren NK, Riley WJ. Thyroid, gastric, and adrenal autoimmunities associated with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care. 1985;8(Suppl.):34-8.
8. Betterle C, Zanette F, Pedini B, et al. Clinical and subclinical organ-specific autoimmune manifestations in type 1 (insulin-dependent) diabetic patients and their first-degree relatives. Diabetologia. 1984; 26:431-6.
9. Nepom GT, Kwok WW. Molecular basis for HLA-DQ associations with IDDM. Diabetes. 1998;47:1177-84.
10. Jacobson EM, Huber A, Tomer Y. The HLA gene complex in thyroid autoimmunity: from epidemiology to etiology. J Autoimmun. 2008;30:58-62.
11. Eisenbarth GS. Update in Diabetes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2007;92:2403-7.
12. Caillat-Zucman S. Molecular mechanisms of HLA association with autoimmune diseases. Tissue Antigens. 2009;73:1-8.
13. Ueda H, Howson JM, Esposito L, et al. Association of the T-cell regulatory gene CTLA-4 with susceptibility to autoimmune disease. Nature. 2003;423:506-11.
14. Vaidya B, Pearce S. The emerging role of the CTLA-4 gene in autoimmune endocrinopathies. Eur J Endocrinol. 2004;150:619-26.
15. Hue S, Monteiro RC, Berrih-Aknin S, Caillat-Zucman S. Potential role of NKG2D/MHC class I-related chain A interaction in intrathymic maturation of single-positive CD8 T cells. J Immunol. 2003;171:1909-17.
16. Caillat-Zucman S. How NKG2D ligands trigger autoimmunity? Hum Immunol. 2006;67:204-7.
17. Gambelunghe G, Ghaderi M, Cosentino A, et al. Association of MHC class I chain-related A (MIC-A) gene polymorphism with type 1 diabetes. Diabetologia. 2000;43:507-14.
18. Bilbao JR, Martin-Pagola A, Vitoria JC, Zubillaga P, Ortiz L, Castano L. HLA-DRB1 and MHC class 1 chain-related A haplotypes in Basque families with celiac disease. Tissue Antigens. 2002;60:71-6.
19. Lopez-Vazquez A, Rodrigo L, Fuentes D, et al. MHC class I chain related gene A (MICA) modulates the development of coeliac disease in patients with the high risk heterodimer DQA1*0501/DQB1*0201. Gut. 2002;50:336-40.
20. Barker JM, Ide A, Hostetler C, et al. Endocrine and immunogenetic testing in individuals with type 1 diabetes and 21-hydroxylase autoantibodies: Addison's disease in a high risk population. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005;90:128-34.
21. Bottini N, Muscumeci L, Alonso A, et al. A functional variant of lymphoid tyrosine phosphatase is associated with type I diabetes. Nat Genet. 2004;36:337-8.
22. Smyth D, Cooper JD, Collins JE, et al. Replication of an association between the lymphoid tyrosine phosphatase locus (LYP/PTPN22) with type 1 diabetes, and evidence for its role as a general autoimmunity locus. Diabetes. 2004;53:3020-3.
23. Velaga MR, Wilson V, Jennings CE, et al. The codon 620 tryptophan allele of the lymphoid tyrosine phosphatase (LYP) gene is a major determinant of Graves' disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004;89:5862-5.
24. Schmidt MB. Eine biglanduläre Erkrankung (Nebeniere und Schilddrüse) bei morbus Addisonii. Verhandlungen der Deutschen Pathologischen Gesellschaft. 1926;21:212-5.
25. Neufeld M, Maclaren NK, Blizzard RM. Autoimmune polyglandular syndromes. Pediatric Annals. 1980;9:154-62.
26. Aaltonen J, Bjorses P, Sandkuijl L, Perheentupa J, Peltonen L. An autosomal locus causing autoimmune disease: autoimmune polyglandular disease type 1 assigned to chromosome 21. Nat Genet. 1994;8:83-7.
27. Atkinson MA, Eisenbarth GS. Type 1 diabetes: new perspectives on disease pathogenesis and treatment. Lancet. 2001;358:221-9.
28. Gepts W. Pathologic anatomy of the pancreas in juvenile diabetes mellitus. Diabetes. 1965;14:619-33.
29. Wenzlau JM, Juhl K, Yu L, et al. The cation efflux transporter ZnT8 (Slc30A8) is a major autoantigen in human type 1 diabetes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2007;104:17040-5.
30. Lampeter EF, Homberg M, Quabeck K, et al. Transfer of insulin-dependent diabetes between HLA-identical siblings by bone marrow transplantation. Lancet. 1993;341:1243-5.
31. Yu L, Rewers M, Gianani R, et al. Antiislet autoantibodies usually develop sequentially rather than simultaneously. J Clin Endocinol Metab. 1996;81:4264-7.
32. Ziegler AG, Hummel M, Schenker M, Bonifacio E. Autoantibody appearance and risk for development of childhood diabetes in offspring of parents with type 1 diabetes. The 2-year analysis of the German BABYDIAB study. Diabetes. 1999;48:460-8.
33. Kukko M, Kimpimaki T, Korhonen S, et al. Dynamics of diabetes-associated autoantibodies in young children with human leucocyte antigen-conferred risk of type 1 diabetes recruited from the general population. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005;90:2712-7.
34. Tuomi T, Bjorses P, Falorni A, et al. Antibodies to glutamic acid decarboxylase and insulin-dependent diabetes in patients with autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome type I. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1996;81:1488-94.
35. Bingley PJ, Bonifacio E, Williams AJK, Genovese S, Bottazzo GF, Gale EAM. Prediction of IDDM in the general population: strategies based on combinations of autoantibody markers. Diabetes. 1997;46:1701-10.
36. Decochez K, de Leeuw IH, Keymeulen B, et al. IA-2 autoantibodies predict impending type I diabetes in siblings of patients. Diabetologia. 2002;45:1658-66.
37. Todd JA, Bell JI, McDevitt HO. HLA DQβ-gene contributes to susceptibility and resistance to insulin-dependent diabetic individuals. Nature. 1987;329:599-604.
38. Bell GI, Horita S, Karam JH. A polymorphic locus of the human insulin gene is associated with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Diabetes. 1984;33:176-83.
39. Van der Auwera BJ, Heimberg H, Schrevens AF, Van Waeyenberge C, Flament J, Schuit FC. 5′ Insulin gene polymorphism confers risk to IDDM independently of HLA class II susceptibility. Diabetes. 1993;42:851-4.
40. Davies JL, Kawaguchi Y, Bennett ST, et al. A genome-wide search for human type I susceptibility genes. Nature. 1994;371:130-6.
41. Nistico L, Buzzetti R, Pritchard LE, et al. The CTLA-4 gene region of chromosome 2q33 is linked to, and associated with type 1 diabetes. Hum Mol Genet. 1996;5:1075-80.
42. Baisch JM, Weeks T, Giles R, Hoover M, Stastny P, Capra JD. Analysis of HLA-DQ genotypes and susceptibility in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med. 1990;322:1836-41.
43. Baisch JM, Weeks T, Giles R, Hoover M, Stastny P, Capra JD. Analysis of HLA-DQ genotypes and susceptibility in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med. 1990;322:1836-41.
44. Heimberg H, Nagy ZP, Somers G, de Leeuw I, Schuit FC. Complementation of HLA DQA and DQB genes confers susceptibility and protection to insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Hum Immunol. 1992;33:10-7.
45. Thorsby E, Ronningen KS. Particular HLA-DQ molecules play a dominant role in determining susceptibility or resistance to type 1 (insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia. 1993;36:371-7.
46. Bingley PJ, Colman P, Eisenbarth GS, et al. Standardization of IVGTT to predict IDDM. Diabetes Care. 1992;15:1313-6.
47. Chase HP, Dolan LM, Krischer JP, et al. First phase insulin response in young healthy children during the intravenous glucose tolerance test as a risk factor for type 1 diabetes. J Pediatr. 2001;138:244-9.
48. Meier J, Bhushan A, Butler AE, Rizza RA, Butler PC. Sustained β cell apoptosis in patients with long-standing type 1 diabetes: indirect evidence for islet regeneration? Diabetologia. 2005;48:2221-8.
49. Keymeulen B, Vandemeulebroucke E, Ziegler AG, et al. Insulin needs after CD3-antibody therapy in new-onset type 1 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2005;352:2598-608.
50. Vandemeulebroucke E, Keymeulen B, Decochez K, et al. Hyperglycemic clamp test for diabetes risk assessment in IA-2 antibody-positive relatives of type 1 diabetic patients. Diabetologia. 2009;in press.
51. Hashimoto H. Zur kenntnis der lymphomatosen veranderung der schilddruse (struma lymphomatosa). Acta Klin Chir. 1912;97:219-48.
52. Pearce EN, Farwell AP, Braverman LE. Thyroiditis. N Engl J Med. 2003;348:2646-55.
53. Vanderpump MPJ, Tunbridge WM, French JM, et al. The incidence of thyroid disorders in the community: a twenty-year follow-up of the Whickham survey. Clin Endocrinol. 1995;43:55-68.
54. Riley WJ, maclaren NK, Lezotta DC, Spillar RP, Rosenbloom AL. Thyroid autoimmunity in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: the case for routine screening. J Pediatr. 1981;98:350-4.
55. Kontiainen S, Schlenzka A, Koskimies S, Rilva A, Maenpaa J. Autoantibodies and autoimmune diseases in young diabetics. Diabetes Res. 1990;13:151-6.
56. Kordonouri O, Klinghammer A, Lang EB, Gruters-Kieslich A, Grabert M, Holl RW. Thyroid autoimmunity in children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes: a multicenter survey. Diabetes Care. 2002;25:1346-50.
57. Kim EY, Shin CH, Yang SW. Polymorphisms of HLA class II predispose children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes to autoimmune thyroid disease. Autoimmunity. 2003;36:177-81.
58. Perros P, McCrimmon RJ, Shax G, Frier BM. Frequency of thyroid dysfunction in diabetic patients: value of annual screening. Diabet Med. 1995;12:622-7.
59. Umpierrez GE, Latif KA, Murphy MB, et al. Thyroid dysfunction in patients with type 1 diabetes: a longitudinal study. Diabetes Care. 2003;26:1181-5.
60. Kawasaki E, Takino H, Yano M, et al. Autoantibodies to glutamic acid decarboxylase in patients with IDDM and autoimmune thyroid disease. Diabetes. 1994;43:80-6.
61. Bottazzo GF, Florin-Christensen A, Doniach D. Islet-cell antibodies in diabetes mellitus with autoimmune polyendocrine deficiencies. Lancet. 1974;ii:1279-82.
62. De Block CE, de Leeuw IH, Rooman RP, Winnock F, Du Caju MV, van Gaal LF. Gastric parietal cell antibodies are associated with glutamic acid decarboxylase-65 antibodies and the HLA DQA1*0501-DQB1*0301 haplotype in type 1 diabetes mellitus. Belgian Diabetes Registry. Diabet Med. 2000;17:618-22.
63. Barbesino G, Chiovato L. The genetics of Hashimoto's disease. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 2000;29:357-73.
64. Silverstein J, Klingensmith G, Copeland K, et al. Care of children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes: a statement of the American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Care. 2005;28:186-212.
65. Graves RJ. Newly observed affection of the thyroid gland in females. Lond Med Surg J. 1835;7:517.
66. Brent GA. Graves' disease. N Engl J Med. 2008;358:2594-605.
67. Gough SCL. The genetics of Graves' disease. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 2000;29:255-66.
68. Santamaria P, Barbosa JJ, Lindstrom AL, Lemke TA, Goetz FC, Rich SS. HLA-DQB1-associated susceptibility that distinguishes Hashimoto's thyroiditis from Graves' disease in type 1 diabetic patients. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1994;78:878-83.
69. Toft AD. Subclinical hyperthyroidism. N Engl J Med. 2001;345:512-6.
70. Singer PA, Cooper DS, Levy EG, et al. Treatment guidelines for patients with hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism. JAMA. 1995;273:808-12.
71. American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists. American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists medical guidelines for the evaluation and treatment of hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism. Endocr Pract. 2002;8:457-69.
72. Gee S. On the coeliac affection. St Barth Hosp Rep. 1888;24:17-20.
73. Dicke WK, Weijers HA, van de Kamer JH. Coeliac disease. II. The presence in wheat of a factor having a deleterious effect in cases of coeliac disease. Acta Paediatr Scand. 1953;42:34-42.
74. Collin P, Kaukinen K, Valimaki M, Salmi J. Endocrinological disorders and celiac disease. Endocrine Rev. 2002;23(4):464-83.
75. Green PH, Cellier C. Celiac disease. N Engl J Med. 2007;357:1731-43.
76. Dieterich W, Ehnis T, Bauer M, et al. Identification of tissue transglutaminase as the autoantigen of celiac disease. Nat Med. 1997;3:797-801.
77. Sollid LM, Markussen G, Ek J, Gjerde H, Vartdal F, Thorsby E. Evidence for a primary association of celiac disease to a particular HLA-DQ α/βheterodimer. J Exp Med. 1989;169:345-50.
78. Bao F, Yu L, Babu S, et al. One third of HLA DQ2 homozygous patients with type 1 diabetes express celiac disease-associated transglutaminase antibodies. J Autoimmun. 1999;13:143-8.
79. Schuppan D. Current concepts of celiac disease pathogenesis. Gastroenterology. 2000;119:234-42.
80. Paronen J, Klemetti P, Kantele JM, et al. Glutamate decarboxylase- reactive peripheral blood lymphocytes from patients with IDDM express gut-specific homing receptor α4β7-integrin. Diabetes. 1997;46:583-8.
81. Fasano A, Catassi C. Current approaches to diagnosis and treatment of celiac disease: an evolving spectrum. Gastroenterology. 2001;120:636-51.
82. Cronin CC, Shanahan F. Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus and coeliac disease. Lancet. 1997;349:1096-7.
83. Holmes GKT. Coeliac disease and type 1 diabetes mellitus - the case for screening. Diabet Med. 2001;18:169-77.
84. Sategna-Guidetti C, Grosso S, Pulitano R, Benaduce E, Dani F, Carta Q. Celiac disease and insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, screening in an adult population. Dig Dis Sci. 1994;39:1633-7.
85. Saukonen T, Savilahti E, Reijonen H, Ilonen J, Tuomilehto-Wolf E, Akerblom HK. Coeliac disease: frequent occurence after clinical onset of insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Diabet Med. 1996;13:464-70.
86. Kordonouri O, Dieterich W, Schuppan D, et al. Autoantibodies to tissue transglutaminase are sensitive serological parameters for detecting silent coeliac disease in patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus. Diabet Med. 2000;17:441-4.
87. Lampasona V, Bonfanti R, Bazzigaluppi E, et al. Antibodies to tissue transglutaminase C in type I diabetes. Diabetologia. 1999;42:1195-8.
88. Walker-Smith JA, Grigor W. Coeliac disease in a diabetic child. Lancet. 1969;i:1021.
89. Hoffenberg EJ, Fallstrom SP, Jansson G, Jansson U, Lindberg T. Clinical features of children with screening-identified evidence of celiac disease. Pediatrics. 2004;113:1254-9.
90. Collin P, Vilska S, Heinonen PK, Hallstrom O, Pikkarainen P. Infertility and coeliac disease. Gut. 1996;46:332-5.
91. Nuti R, Martini G, Valenti R, Giovani S, Salvadori S, Avantzati A. Prevalence of undiagnosed coeliac syndrome in osteoporotic women. J Intern Med. 2001;250:361-6.
92. Iafusco D, Rea F, Prisco F. Hypoglycemia and reduction of insulin requirement as a sign of coeliac disease in children with IDDM. Diabetes Care. 1998;21:1379-80.
93. Kaukinen K, Salmi J, Lahtela J, et al. No effect of gluten-free diet on the metabolic control of type 1 diabetes in patients with diabetes and coeliac disease. Diabetes Care. 1999;22:1747-8.
94. Andreelli F, Plotton I, Riou JP, Thivolet C. Diabetic instability and coeliac disease. Diabetes Care. 1998;21:2192-3.
95. Addison T. Anaemia: disease of suprerenal capsules. London Med Gae. 1849;8:517-8.
96. De Block C, de Leeuw I, van Gaal L. Autoimmune gastritis in type 1 diabetes: a clinically oriented review. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008;93:363-71.
97. Toh BH, Van Driel IR, Gleeson PA. Mechanisms of disease: pernicious anemia. N Engl J Med. 1997;337:1441-8.
98. Jacobson DL, Gange SJ, Rose NR, Graham NM. Epidemiology and estimated population burden of selected autoimmune diseases in the United States. Clin Immunol Immunopathol. 1997;84:223-43.
99. Carmel R. Prevalence of undiagnosed pernicious anemia in the elderly. Arch Intern Med. 1996;156:1097-100.
100. De Block C, Van Gaal L, Leeuw I, Belgian Diabetes Registry. High prevalence of manifestations of gastric autoimmunity in parietal cell-antibody positive type 1 (insulin-dependent) diabetic patients. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1999;84:4062-7.
101. Marignani M, Delle Fave G, Mecarocci S, et al. High prevalence of atrophic body gastritis in patients with unexplained microcytic and macrocytic anemia. Am J Gastroenterol. 1999;94:766-72.
102. De Block CE, van Campenhout CM, de Leeuw IH, et al. Soluble transferrin receptor level: a new marker of iron deficiency anemia, a common manifestation of gastric autoimmunity in type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2000;23:1384-8.
103. Kokkola A, Sjöblom SM, Haapiainen R, Sipponen P, Puolakkainen P, Jarvinen H. The risk of gastric carcinoma and carcinoid tumours in patients with pernicious anaemia: a prospective follow-up study. Scand J Gastroenterol. 1998;33:88-92.
104. De Block C, de Leeuw I, Bogers J, et al. Autoimmune gastropathy in type 1 diabetic patients with parietal cell antibodies: histological and clinical findings. Diabetes Care. 2003;26:82-8.
105. Doniach D, Roitt IM, Taylor KB. Autoimmune phenomena in pernicious anemia: serological overlap with thyroiditis, thyrotoxicosis and systemic lupus erythematosus. BMJ. 1963;1:1374-9.
106. Centanni M, Marignani M, Gargano L, et al. Atrophic body gastritis in patients with autoimmune thyroid disease. An underdiagnosed association. Arch Intern Med. 1999;159:1726-30.
107. Hsing A, Hansson L, McLaughlin J, Nyren O, Blot W, Ekbom A, Fraumeni JF Jr. Pernicious anemia and subsequent cancer: a population-based cohort study. Cancer. 1993;71:745-50.
108. De Block CE, de Leeuw IH, Decochez K, et al. The presence of thyrogastric antibodies in first-degree relatives of type 1 diabetic patients is associated with age and proband antibody status. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001;86:4358-63.
109. Ungar B, Mathews J, Tait BD, Cowling DC. HLA-DR patterns in pernicious anemia. BMJ (Clin Res Ed). 1981;282:768-70.
110. Baxter AG, Jordan MA, Silveira PA, Wilson WE, van Driel IR. Genetic control of susceptibility to autoimmune gastritis. Int Rev Immunol. 2005;24:55-62.
111. Van Driel IR, Baxter AG, Laurie KL, et al. Immunopathogenesis, loss of T cell tolerance and genetics of autoimmune gastritis. Autoimmun Rev. 2002;1:290-7.
112. Van Driel IR, Read S, Zwar T, Gleeson PA. Shaping the T cell repertoire to a bona fide autoantigen: lessons from autoimmune gastritis. Curr Opin Immunol. 2005;17:270-6.
113. Ten S, New M, Maclaren N. Addison's disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001;86:2909-22.
114. Addison T. On the constitutional and local effects of disease of the suprarenal capsules. In a collection of the published writing of the late Thomas Addison, M.D., physician to Guy's Hospital London: New Sydenham Society, 1868 (reprinted in Medical Classics 1937; 2:244-293).
115. Winqvist O, Karlsson FA, Kampe O. 21-Hydroxylase, a major autoantigen in idiopathic Addison's disease. Lancet. 1992;339:1559-62.
116. Betterle C, Dal Pra C, Mantero F, Zanchetta R. Autoimmune adrenal insufficiency and autoimmune polyendocrine syndromes: autoantibodies, autoantigens, and their applicability in diagnosis and disease prediction. Endocrine Rev. 2002;23(3):327-64.
117. Anderson JR, Goudie RB, Gray KG, Timbury GC. Autoantibodies in Addison's disease. Lancet. 1957;1:1123-4.
118. Brewer KW, Parziale VS, Eisenbarth GS. Screening patients with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus for adrenal insufficiency. N Eng J Med. 1997;337:202.
119. Peterson P, Salmi H, Hyoty H, et al. Steroid 21-hydroxylase autoantibodies in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Childhood diabetes in Finland (DiMe) Study Group. Clin Immunopathol. 1997;82:37-42.
120. Yu L, Brewer KW, Gates S, et al. DRB1*04 and DQ alleles: expression of 21-hydroxylase autoantibodies and risk of progression to Addison's disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1999;84:328-35.
121. Betterle C, Scalici C, Presotto F, et al. The natural history of adrenal function in autoimmune patients with adrenal autoantibodies. J Endocrinol. 1988;117:467-75.
122. Barker JM, Ide A, Hostetler C, et al. Endocrine and immunogenetic testing in individuals with type 1 diabetes and 21-hydroxylase autoantibodies: Addison's disease in a high-risk population. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005;90:128-34.
123. Park YS, Sanjeevi CB, Robles D, et al. Additional assocation of intra-MHC genes, MICA and D6S273, with Addison's disease. Tissue Antigens. 2002;60:155-63.
124. Gambelunghe G, Falorni A, Ghaderi M, et al. Microsatellite polymorphism of the MHC class I chain-related (mic-a and mic-b) genes marks the risk for autoimmune Addison's disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1999;84:3701-7.
125. Salvatori R. Adrenal insufficiency. JAMA. 2005;294:2481-8.
126. Oelkers W. Adrenal insufficiency. N Engl J Med. 1996;335:1206-12.
127. Taïeb A, Picardo M. Vitiligo. N Engl J Med. 2009;360:160-9.
128. Kemp EH, Waterman EA, Weetman AP. Autoimmune aspects of vitiligo. Autoimmunity. 2001;34:65-77.
129. Jin Y, Mailloux CM, Gowan K, et al. NALP1 in vitiligo-associated multiple autoimmune disease. N Engl J Med. 2007;356:1216-25.
130. Kakourou T, Kanaka-Gantenbein C, Papadopoulou A, Kaloumenou E, Chrousos GP. Increased prevalence of chronic autoimmune (Hashimoto's) thyroiditis in children and adolescents with vitiligo. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2005;53:220-3.
131. Alkhateeb A, Fain PR, Thody A, Bennett DC, Spritz RA. Epidemiology of vitiligo and associated autoimmune diseases in Caucasian probands and their families. Pigment Cell Res. 2003;16:208-14.
132. Betterle C, Caretto A, de Zio A, et al. Incidence and significance of organ-specific autoimmune disorders (clinical, latent or only autoantibodies) in patients with vitiligo. Dermatologica. 1985;171:419-23.
133. Amerio P, Tracanna M, De Remigis P, et al. Vitiligo associated with other autoimmune diseases: polyglandular autoimmune syndrome types 3B+C and 4. Clin Exp Dermatol. 2006;31:746-9.
134. Gawkrodger DJ, Ormerod AD, Shaw L, et al. Guideline for the diagnosis and management of vitiligo. Br J Dermatol. 2008;159:1051-76.