Thyroid disruption: Mechanisms and clinical implications in human health

Alternative Medicine Review

Volumn 14, Issue 4, 2009, Pages 326-346

  Patrick, Lyn ^a  

^a Southwestern College   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

2,3,7,8 TETRACHLORODIBENZO PARA DIOXIN; 4 HYDROXYBENZOIC ACID ESTER; 4,4' ISOPROPYLIDENEDIPHENOL; DIOXIN; ENDOCRINE DISRUPTOR; IODIDE PEROXIDASE; LIOTHYRONINE; ORGANOCHLORINE DERIVATIVE; PENTACHLOROPHENOL; PERCHLORATE; PESTICIDE; PHTHALIC ACID DERIVATIVE; POLYBROMINATED DIPHENYL ETHER; POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYL; POLYCHLORINATED DIBENZOFURAN; SODIUM IODIDE SYMPORTER; THYROID HORMONE; THYROTROPIN; THYROXINE; TRICLOSAN; DIPHENYL ETHER DERIVATIVE; FLAME RETARDANT;

AUTOIMMUNE THYROIDITIS; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; FETUS DEVELOPMENT; HORMONAL REGULATION; HORMONE METABOLISM; HORMONE SYNTHESIS; HORMONE TRANSPORT; HUMAN; HYPERTHYROIDISM; HYPOTHYROIDISM; NONHUMAN; RECEPTOR BINDING; REVIEW; THYROID CANCER; THYROID DISEASE; THYROID GLAND; ATTITUDE TO HEALTH; CHEMICALLY INDUCED DISORDER; DRUG EFFECT; POLLUTANT; STATISTICS; THYROID TUMOR; UNITED STATES;

DIOXINS; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTANTS; FLAME RETARDANTS; HALOGENATED DIPHENYL ETHERS; HEALTH KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDES, PRACTICE; HUMANS; PESTICIDES; POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS; THYROID DISEASES; THYROID GLAND; THYROID NEOPLASMS; UNITED STATES;

EID: 74049122831     PISSN: 10895159     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (158)

1. Diamanti-Kandarakis E, Bourguignon JP, Giudice LC, et al. Endocrine-disrupting chemicals: an Endocrine Society scientific statement. Endocr Rev 2009;30:293-342.
2. Howdeshell KL. A model of the development of the brain as a construct of the thyroid system. Environ Health Perspect 2002;110:337-348.
3. Brucker-Davis E Effects of environmental synthetic chemicals on thyroid function. Thyroid 1998;8:827-856.
4. Leatherland JE Contaminant-altered thyroid function in wildlife. In: Guillette LJ Jr, Crain DA, eds. Environmental Endocrine Disrupters: An Evolutionary Perspective. New York, NY: Taylor and Francis; 1999:155-181.
5. Tellez Tellez R, Michaud Chacon P, Reyes Abarca C, et al. Long-term environmental exposure to Perchlorate through drinking water and thyroid function during pregnancy and the neonatal period. Thyroid 2005;15:963-975.
6. Miller MD, Crofton KM, Rice DC, Zoeller RT. Thyroid-disrupting chemicals: interpreting upstream biomarkers of adverse outcomes. Environ Health Perspect 2009;117:1033-1041.
7. Hollowell JG, Staehling NW, Flanders WD, et al. Serum TSH, T(4), and thyroid antibodies in the United States population (1988 to 1994): National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III ).J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002;87:489-499.
8. Harris MI, Flegal KM, Cowie CC, et al. Prevalence of diabetes, impaired fasting glucose, and impaired glucose tolerance in U.S. adults: The Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988-1994. Diabetes Care 1998;21:518-524.
9. Canaris GJ, Manowitz NR, Mayor G, Ridgway EC. The Colorado thyroid disease prevalence study. Arch Intern Med 2000;160:526-534.
10. Surks MI, Goswami G, Daniels GH. The thyrotropin reference range should remain unchanged.J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005;90:5489-5496.
11. Baloch Z, Carayon P, Conte-Devolx B, et al. Laboratory medicine practice guidelines. Laboratory support for the diagnosis and monitoring of thyroid disease. Thyroid 2003;13:3-126.
12. Baskin HJ, Cobin RH, Duick DS, et al. American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists medical guidelines for clinical practice for the evaluation and treatment of hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism. Endocrine Prac 2002;8:457-469.
13. Fatourechi V, Klee GG, Grebe SK, et al. Effects of reducing the upper limit of normal TSH values. JAMA 2003;290:3195-3196.
14. Surks MI, Hollowell JG. Age-specific distribution of serum thyrotropin and antithyroid antibodies in the U.S. population: implications for the prevalence of subclinical hypothyroidism.J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2007:92:4575-4582.
15. Spencer CA, Hollowell JG, Kazarosyan M, Braverman LE. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey III thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)-thyroperoxidase antibody relationships demonstrate that TSH upper reference limits may be skewed by occult thyroid dysfunction. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2007;92:4236-4240.
16. NIH Autoimmune Disease Coordinating Committee: Autoimmune Research Plan 2005. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services NIH pub. 05-5140 March 2005.
17. Dayan CM, Daniels GH. Chronic autoimmune thyroiditis. N Engl J Med 1996;335:99-107.
18. Weetman AR Graves' disease. N Engl J Med 2000;343:1236-1248.
19. Neufeld M, Blizzard RM. Polyglandular autoimmune diseases. In: Pinchera A, Doniach D, Fenzi GF, Baschieri L, eds. Symposium on Autoimmune Aspects of Endocrine Disorders. New York, NY: Academic Press; 1980:357-365.
20. Betterle C, Zanchetta R. Update on autoimmune polyendocrine syndromes (APS). Acta Biomed 2003;74:9-33.
21. Rao T, Richardson B. Environmentally induced autoimmune diseases: potential mechanisms. Environ Health Perspect 1999;107:737-742.
22. Langer P, Tajtakova M, Fodor G, et al. Increased thyroid volume and prevalence of thyroid disorders in an area heavily polluted by polychlorinated biphenyls. Eur J Endocrinol 1998;139:402-409.
23. Osius N, Karmaus W. Thyroid hormone level in children in the area of a toxic waste incinerator in South Hessen. Gesundheitswesen 1998;60:107-112. [Article in German]
24. Tsuji H, Sato K, Shimono J, et al. Thyroid function in patients with Yusho: 28 year follow-up study. Fukuoka Igaku Zasshi 1997;88:231-235.
25. Schell LM, Gallo MV, Ravenscroft J, DeCaprio AP. Persistent organic pollutants and anti-thyroid peroxidase levels in Akwesasne Mohawk young adults. Environ Res 2009;109:86-92.
26. Shoenfeld Y, Blank M, Abu-Shakra M, et al. The mosaic of autoimmunity: prediction, autoantibodies, and therapy in autoimmune disease - 2008. Isr Med Assoc J 2008;10:13-19.
27. Bernal J. Thyroid hormone receptors in brain development and function. Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab 2007;3:249-259.
28. Zoeller RT, Rovet J. Timing of thyroid hormone action in the developing brain: clinical observations and experimental findings. J Neuroendocrinal 2004;16:809-818.
29. Vermiglio F, Lo Presti VP, Moleti M, et al. Attention deficit and hyperactivity disorders in the offspring of mothers exposed to mild-moderate iodine deficiency: a possible novel iodine deficiency disorder in developed countries. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004;89:6054-6060.
30. Pop VJ, Kuijpens JL, van Baar AL, et al. Low maternal free thyroxine concentrations during early pregnancy are associated with impaired psychomotor development in infancy Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1999;50:149-155.
31. Haddow JE, Palomaki GE, Williams J. Thyroid-stimulating hormone concentrations and risk of hypothyroidism. Lancet 2002;360:2081-2082.
32. Morreale de Escobar G, Obregon MJ, Escobar del Rey F. Is neuropsychological development related to maternal hypothyroidism or maternal hypothyroxinemia? J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2000;85:3975-3987.
33. Crofton KM. Developmental disruption of thyroid hormone: correlations with hearing dysfunction in rats. Risk Anal 2004;24:1665-1671.
34. Asvold BO, Bjoro X Nilsen TI, Vatten LJ. Association between blood pressure and serum thyroid-stimulating hormone concentration within the reference range: a population-based study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2007;92:841-845.
35. Biondi B, Palmieri EA, Klain M, et al. Subclinical hyperthyroidism: clinical features and treatment options. Eur J Endocrinol 2005;152:1-9.
36. Razvi S, Shakoor A, Vanderpump M, et al. The influence of age on the relationship between subclinical hypothyroidism and ischemic heart disease: a metaanalysis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2008;93:2998-3007.
37. Asvold BO, Vatten LJ, Nilsen TI, Bjoro T. The association between TSH within the reference range and serum lipid concentrations in a population-based study The HUNT Study Eur J Endocrinol 2007;156:181-186.
38. Dullaart RP, de Vries R, Roozendaal C, et al. Carotid artery intima media thickness is inversely related to serum free thyroxine in euthyroid subjects. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2007;67:668-673.
39. Volzke H, Robinson DM, Spielhagen T, et al. Are serum thyrotropin levels within the reference range associated with endothelial function? Eur Heart J 2009;30:217-224.
40. Alberiche M, Boronat M, Saavedra P, et al. Thyrotropin levels and their relationship with cardiovascular risk factors in the island of Gran Canaria Spain. Implications of lowering the upper reference limit of thyrotropin stimulating hormone. J Endocrinol Invest 2009;32:102-106.
41. Rodondi N, Aujesky D, Vittinghoff E, et al. Subclinical hypothyroidism and the risk of coronary heart disease: a meta-analysis. Am J Med 2006;119:541-551.
42. Michalopoulou G, Alevizaki M, Piperingos G, et al. High serum cholesterol levels in persons with "high-normal" TSH levels: should one extend the definition of subclinical hypothyroidism? Eur J Endocrinol 1998;138:141-145.
43. Meier C, Staub JJ, Roth CB, et al. TSH-controlled L-thyroxine therapy reduces cholesterol levels and clinical symptoms in subclinical hypothyroidism: a double blind, placebo-controlled trial (Basel Thyroid Study). J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001;86:4860-4866.
44. DeVito M, Biegel L, Brouwer A, et al. Screening methods for thyroid hormone disruptors. Environ Health Perspect 1999;107:407-415.
45. Reichlin S, Utiger RD. Regulation of the pituitary-thyroid axis in man: relationship of TSH concentration to concentration of free and total thyroxine in plasma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1967;27:251-255.
46. Bogazzi F, Bartalena L, Brogioni S, et al. L-thyroxine directly affects expression of thyroid hormone-sensitive genes: regulatory effect of RXRbeta. Mol Cell Endocrinol 1997;134:23-31.
47. Zoeller TR, Dowling AL, Herzig CT, et al. Thyroid hormone, brain development, and the environment. Environ Health Perspect 2002;110:355-361.
48. Dohan O, De la Vieja A, Paroder V, et al. The sodium/iodide symporter (NIS): characterization, regulation, and medical significance. Endocr Rev 2003;24:48-77.
49. Cho JY, Leveille R, Kao R, et al. Hormonal regulation of radioiodide uptake activity and Na+/I- symporter expression in mammary glands. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2000;85:2936-2943.
50. De Groef B, Decallonne BR, Van der Geyten S, et al. Perchlorate versus other environmental sodium/iodide symporter inhibitors: potential thyroid-related health effects. Eur J Endocrinol 2006;155:17-25.
51. Wolff J. Perchlorate and the thyroid gland. Pharmacol Rev 1998;50:89-105.
52. Saito T, Endo T, Kawaguchi A, et al. Increased expression of the Na+/I- symporter in cultured human thyroid cells exposed to thyrotropin and in Graves' thyroid tissue. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1997;82:3331-3336.
53. Lazar V, Bidart JM, Caillou B, et al. Expression of the Na+/I- symporter gene in human thyroid tumors: a comparison study with other thyroid-specific genes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1999;84:3228-3234.
54. Kambe F, Seo H. Thyroid-specific transcription factors. Endocr J 1997;44:775-784.
55. Crofton KM. Thyroid disrupting chemicals: mechanisms and mixtures. Int J Androl 2008;31:209-223.
56. Refetoff S, Robin NI, Fang VS. Parameters of thyroid function in serum of 16 selected vertebrate species: a study of PBI, serum T4, free T4, and the pattern of T4 and T3 binding to serum proteins. Endocrinology 1970;86:793-805.
57. Ulbrich B, Stahlmann R. Developmental toxicity of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs): a systematic review of experimental data. Arch Toxicol 2004;78:252-268.
58. Oppenheimer JH. Role of plasma proteins in the binding, distribution, and metabolism of the thyroid hormones. N Engl J Med 1968;278:1153-1162.
59. Mendel CM, Weisiger RA, Jones AL, Cavalieri RR. Thyroid hormone-binding proteins in plasma facilitate uniform distribution of thyroxine within tissues: a perfused rat liver study Endocrinology 1987;120:1742-1749.
60. Boas M, Feldt-Rasmussen U, Skakkebaek NE, Main KM. Environmental chemicals and thyroid function. Eur J Endocrinol 2006;154:599-611.
61. Whitfield GK, Jurutka PW, Haussler CA, Haussler MR. Steroid hormone receptors: evolution, ligands, and molecular basis of biologic function. J Cell Biochem 1999;S32-33:110-122.
62. Santini F, Vitti P, Ceccarini G, et al. In vitro assay of thyroid disruptors affecting TSH-stimulated adenylate cyclase activity. J Endocrinol Invest 2003:26:950-955.
63. Bianco AC, Salvatore D, Gereben B, et al. Biochemistry, cellular and molecular biology, and physiological roles of the iodothyronine selenodeiodinases. Endocr Rev 2002;23:38-89.
64. Bianco AC, Kim BW Deiodinases: implications of the local control of thyroid hormone action. J Clin Invest 2006;116:2571-2579.
65. Medeiros-Neto G, Stanbury JB. The iodotyrosine deiodinase defect. In: Inherited Disorders of the Thyroid System. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 1994:139-159.
66. O'Mara BA, Dittrich W, Lauterio TJ, St Germain DL. Pretranslational regulation of type I 5'-deiodinase by thyroid hormones in fasted and diabetic rats. Endocrinology 1993;133:1715-1723.
67. Beckett GJ, MacDougall DA, Nicol F, Arthur R. Inhibition of type I and type II iodothyronine deiodinase activity in rat liver, kidney and brain produced by selenium deficiency Biochem J 1989;259:887-892.
68. Murakami M, Araki O, Hosoi Y, et al. Expression and regulation of type II iodothyronine deiodinase in human thyroid gland. Endocrinology 2001;142:2961-2967.
69. Hosoi Y, Murakami M, Mizuma H, et al. Expression and regulation of type II iodothyronine deiodinase in cultured human skeletal muscle cells. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1999;84:3293-3300.
70. Dentice M, Morisco C, Vitale M, et al. The different cardiac expression of the type 2 iodothyronine deiodinase gene between human and rat is related to the differential response of the Dio2 genes to Nkx-2.5 and GATA-4 transcription factors. Mol Endocrinol 2003;17:1508-1521.
71. Bernal J. Thyroid hormones and brain development. Vitam Horm 2005;71:95-122.
72. Ng L, Goodyear RJ, Woods CA, et al. Hearing loss and retarded cochlear development in mice lacking type 2 iodothyronine deiodinase. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2004;101:3474-3479.
73. Kim BW, Daniels GH, Harrison BJ, et al. Overexpression of type 2 iodothyronine deiodinase in follicular carcinoma as a cause of low circulating free thyroxine levels. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003;88:594-598.
74. Koopdonk-Kool JM, de Vijlder JJ, Veenboer GJ, et al. Type II and type III deiodinase activity in human placenta as a function of gestational age. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1996;81:2154-2158.
75. Haddow JE, Palomaki GE, Allan WC, et al. Maternal thyroid deficiency during pregnancy and subsequent neuropsychological development of the child. N Engl J Med 1999;341:549-555.
76. Sato K, Robbins J. Thyroid hormone metabolism in cultured monkey hepatocarcinoma cells. Monodeiodination activity in relation to cell growth. J Biol Chem 1980;255:7347-7352.
77. Huang SA, Tu HM, Harney JW, et al. Severe hypothyroidism caused by type 3 iodothyronine deiodinase in infantile hemangiomas. N Engl J Med 2000;343:185-189.
78. Dentice M, Luongo C, Huang S, et al. Sonic hedgehog-induced type 3 deiodinase blocks thyroid hormone action enhancing proliferation of normal and malignant keratinocytes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2007;104:14466-14471.
79. Hood A, Klaassen CD. Differential effects of microsomal enzyme inducers on in vitro thyroxine (T(4)) and triiodothyronine (T(3)) glucuronidation. Toxicol Sci 2000;55:78-84.
80. Kester MH, Kaptein E, Roest TJ, et al. Characterization of human iodothyronine sulfotransferases. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1999;84:1357-1364.
81. Santini F, Chopra IJ, Wu SY, et al. Metabolism of 3,5,3'-triiodothyronine sulfate by tissues of the fetal rat: a consideration of the role of desulfation of 3,5,3'-triiodothyronine sulfate as a source of T3. Pediatr Res 1992;31:541-544.
82. Kester MH, Kaptein E, Van Dijk CH, et al. Characterization of iodothyronine sulfatase activities in human and rat liver and placenta. Endocrinology 2002;143:814-819.
83. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 2002 Perchlorate environmental contamination: toxicological review and risk characterization. Report no NCEA-1-0503. Washington DC: Office of Research and Development, National Center for Environmental Assessment.
84. Snyder SA, Pleus RC, Vanderford BJ, Holady JC. Perchlorate and chlorate in dietary supplements and flavor enhancing ingredients. Anal Chim Acta 2006;567:26-32.
85. Kirk AB, Martinelango PK, Tian K, et al. Perchlorate and iodide in dairy and breast milk. Environ Sci Technol 2005;39:2011-2017.
86. Greer MA, Goodman G, Pleus RC, Greer SE. Health effects assessment for environmental Perchlorate contamination: the dose response for inhibition of thyroidal radioiodine uptake in humans. Environ Health Perspect 2002;110:927-937.
87. Baier-Andersen C, Blount BC, Lakind JS, et al. Estimates of exposures to Perchlorate from consumption of human milk, dairy milk, and water and comparison to current reference dose. J Toxicol Environ Health A 2006;69:319-330.
88. Sanchez CA, Krieger RI, Khandaker N, et al. Accumulation and Perchlorate exposure potential of lettuce produced in the Lower Colorado River region. J Agric Food Chem 2005;53:5479-5486.
89. Sanchez CA, Krieger RI, Khandaker NR, et al. Potential perchlorate exposure from citrus sp. irrigated with contaminated water. Anal Chim Acta 2006;567:33-38.
90. Blount BC, Pirkle JL, Osterloh JD, et al. Urinary Perchlorate and thyroid hormone levels in adolescent and adult men and women living in the United States. Environ Health Perspect 2006;114:1865-1871.
91. Caldwell KL, Jones R, Hollowell JG. Urinary iodine concentration: United States National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2001-2002. Thyroid 2005;15:692-699.
92. Blount BC, Valentin-Blasini L, Osterloh JD, et al. Perchlorate exposure of the US population, 2001-2002. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 2007;17:400-407.
93. Steinmaus C, Miller MD, Howd R. Impact of smoking and thiocyanate on Perchlorate and thyroid associations in the 2001-2002 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey Environ Health Perspect 2007;115:1333-1338.
94. Soldin OR Braverman LE, Lamm SH. Perchlorate clinical pharmacology and human health: a review. Ther Drug Monit 2001;23:316-331.
95. Lawrence JE, Lamm SH, Pino S, et al. The effect of short-term low-dose Perchlorate on various aspects of thyroid function. Thyroid 2000;10:659-663.
96. Lawrence J, Lamm S, Braverman LE. Low dose Perchlorate (3 mg daily) and thyroid function. Thyroid 2001;11:295.
97. Braverman LE, Pearce EN, He X, et al. Effects of six months of daily low-dose Perchlorate exposure on thyroid function in healthy volunteers. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2006;91:2721-2724.
98. Braverman LE, He X, Pino S, et al. The effect of Perchlorate, thiocyanate, and nitrate on thyroid function in workers exposed to Perchlorate long-term. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005;90:700-706.
99. Laurberg R Nohr SB, Pedersen KM, Fuglsang E. Iodine nutrition in breast-fed infants is impaired by maternal smoking. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004;89:181-187.
100. Brauer VF, Below H, Kramer A, et al. The role of thiocyanate in the etiology of goiter in an industrial metropolitan area. Eur J Endocrinol 2006;154:229-235.
101. Crofton KM, Craft ES, Hedge JM, et al. Thyroid-hormone-disrupting chemicals: evidence for dose-dependent additivity or synergism. Environ Health Perspect 2005;113:1549-1554.
102. United Nations Environment Programme. Final act of the Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants. New York, NY: United Nations Environment Programme; 2001.
103. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry: Toxicological Profile for Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs). Adanta U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 2000.
104. Langer R Persistent organochlorinated pollutants (PCB, DDE, HCB, dioxins, furans) and the thyroid - review 2008. Endocr Regul 2008;42:79-104.
105. van den Berg KJ, Zurcher C, Brouwer A. Effects of 3,4,3',4'- tetrachlorobiphenyl on thyroid function and histology in marmoset monkeys. Toxicol Lett 1988;41:77-86.
106. McFarland VA, Clarke JU. Environmental occurrence, abundance and potential toxicity of polychlorinated biphenyl congeners: considerations for congener-specific analysis. Environ Health Perspect 1989;81:225-239.
107. Patandin S, Dagnelie PC, Mulder PG, et al. Dietary exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and dioxins from infancy until adulthood: a comparison between breast-feeding, toddler and long-term exposure. Environ Health Perspect 1999;107:45-51.
108. Hanrahan LR Falk C, Anderson HA, et al. Serum PCB and DDE levels of frequent Great Lakes sport fish consumers - a first look. The Great Lakes Consortium. Environ Res 1999;80:S26-S37.
109. Hites R, Foran JA, Carpenter DO, et al. Global assessment of organic contaminants in farmed salmon. Science 2004;303:226-229.
110. Herrick RF, McClean MD, Meeker JD, et al. An unrecognized source of PCB contamination in schools and other buildings. Environ Health Perspect 2004;112:1051-1053.
111. Gabrio T, Piechotowski I, Wallenhorst T, et al. PCB-blood levels in teachers, working in PCB-contaminated schools. Chemosphere 2000;40:1055-1062.
112. Currado G, Harrad S. Comparison of polychlorinated biphenyl concentrations in indoor and outdoor air and the potential significance of inhalation as a human exposure pathway. Environ Sci Tech 1998;32:3043-3047.
113. Birnbaum LS. Endocrine effects of prenatal exposure to PCBs, dioxins, and other xenobiotics: implications for policy and future research. Environ Health Perspect 1994;102:676-679.
114. Nagayama J, Tsuji H, Iida T, et al. Effects of contamination level of dioxins and related chemicals on thyroid hormones and immune response systems in patients with "Yusho." Chemosphere 2001;43:1005-1010.
115. Morse DC, Groen D, Veerman M, et al. Interference of polychlorinated biphenyls in hepatic and brain thyroid hormone metabolism in fetal and neonatal rats. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1993;122:27-33.
116. Goldey ES, Kehn LS, Lau C, et al. Developmental exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls (Aroclor 1254) reduces circulating thyroid hormone concentrations and causes hearing deficits in rats. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1995;135:77-88.
117. Khan MA, Hansen LG. Ortho-substituted polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) congeners (95 or 101) decrease pituitary response to thyrotropin releasing hormone. Toxicol Lett 2003;144:173-182.
118. Purkey HE, Palaninathan SK, Kent KC, et al. Hydroxylated polychlorinated biphenyls selectively bind transthyretin in blood and inhibit amyloidogenesis: rationalizing rodent PCB toxicity. Chem Biol 2004;11:1719-1728.
119. Alvarez-Pedrerol M, Ribas-Fito N, Torrent M, et al. Effects of PCBs, p,p'-DDT, p,p'-DDE, HCB and beta-HCH on thyroid function in preschool children. Occup Environ Med 2008;65:452-457.
120. Zoeller RT, Crofton KM. Thyroid hormone action in fetal brain development and potential for disruption by environmental chemicals. Neurotoxicology 2000;21:935-945.
121. Shain W, Bush B, Seegal R. Neurotoxicity of polychlorinated biphenyls: structure-activity relationship of individual congeners. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1991;111:33-42.
122. Dickson PW, Aldred AR, Marley PD, et al. High prealbumin and transferrin mRNA levels in the choroid plexus of rat brain. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1985;127:890-895.
123. Meerts IA, Assink Y, Cenijn PH, et al. Placental transfer of a hydroxylated polychlorinated biphenyl and effects on fetal and maternal thyroid hormone homeostasis in the rat. Toxicol Sci 2002;68:361-371.
124. Rogan WJ, Gladen BC. PCBs, DDE, and child development at 18 and 24 months. Ann Epidemiol 1991;1:409-413.
125. Koopman-Esseboom C, Morse DC, Weisglas-Kuperus N, et al. Effects of dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls on thyroid hormone status of pregnant women and their infants. Pediatr Res 1994;36:468-473.
126. Patandin S, Lanting CI, Mulder PG, et al. Effects of environmental exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and dioxins on cognitive abilities in Dutch children at 42 months of age. J Pediatr 1999;134:33-41.
127. Stewart R Reihman J, Lonky E, et al. Prenatal PCB exposure and neonatal behavior assessment scale (NBAS) performance. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2000;22:21-29.
128. Darvill T, Lonky E, Reihman J, et al. Prenatal exposure to PCBs and infant performance on the Fagan test of infant intelligence. Neurotoxicology 2000;21:1029-1038.
129. Schecter A, Startin J, Wright C, et al. Congener-specific levels of dioxins and dibenzofurans in U.S. food and estimated daily dioxin toxic equivalent intake. Environ Health Perspect 1994;102:962-966.
130. Gladen BC, Rogan WJ. Effects of perinatal polychlorinated biphenyls and dichlorodiphenyl dichloroethene on later development. J Pediatr 1991;119:58-63.
131. Walkowiak J, Wiener JA, Fastabend A, et al. Environmental exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and quality of the home environment: effects on psychodevelopment in early childhood. Lancet 2001;358:1602-1607.
132. Grandjean R Weihe R Burse VW, et al. Neurobehavioral deficits associated with PCB in 7-year-old children prenatally exposed to seafood neurotoxicants. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2001;23:305-317.
133. Jacobson JL, Jacobson SW Intellectual impairment in children exposed to polychlorinated biphenyls in utero. N Engl J Med 1996;335:783-789.
134. Chevrier J, Eskenazi B, Bradman A, et al. Associations between prenatal exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and neonatal thyroid-stimulating hormone levels in a Mexican-American population, Salinas Valley California. Environ Health Perspect 2007;115:1490-1496.
135. Schantz SL, Widholm JJ, Rice DC. Effects of PCB exposure on neuropsychological function in children. Environ Health Perspect 2003;111:357-376.
136. Rylander L, Wallin E, Jonssson BA, et al. Associations between CB-153 and p,p'-DDE and hormone levels in serum in middle-aged and elderly men. Chemosphere 2006;65:375-381.
137. Sauer PJ, Huisman M, Koopman-Esseboom C, et al. Effects of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and dioxins on growth and development. Hum Exp Toxicol 1994;13:900-906.
138. Wang SL, Su PH, Jong SB, et al. In utero exposure to dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls and its relations to thyroid function and growth hormone in newborns. Environ Health Perspect 2005, 113:1645-1650.
139. Zuurbier M, Ley's M, Schoeters G, et al. Children's exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers. Acta Paediatr Suppl 2006;95:65-70.
140. Turyk ME, Anderson HA, Persky VW Relationships of thyroid hormones with polychlorinated biphenyls, dioxins, furans, and DDE in adults. Environ Health Perspect 2007;115:1197-1203.
141. Schecter A, Stanley J, Boggess K, et al. Polychlorinated biphenyl levels in the tissues of exposed and nonexposed humans. Environ Health Perspect 1994;102:149-158.
142. Persky V, Turyk M, Anderson HA, et al. The effects of PCB exposure and fish consumption on endogenous hormones. Environ Health Perspect 2001;109:1275-1283.
143. Turyk ME, Anderson HA, Freels S, et al. Associations of organochlorines with endogenous hormones in male Great Lakes fish consumers and nonconsumers. Environ Res 2006; 102:299-307.
144. Abdelouahab N, Mergler D, Takser L, et al. Gender differences in the effects of organochlorines, mercury, and lead on thyroid hormone levels in lakeside communities of Quebec (Canada). Environ Res 2008;107:380-392.
145. Bloom MS, Weiner JM, Vena JE, Beehler GR Exploring associations between serum levels of select organochlorines and thyroxine in a sample of New York state sportsmen: the New York State Angler Cohort Study Environ Res 2003;93:52-66.
146. Meeker JD, Altshul L, Hauser R. Serum PCBs, p,p'-DDE and HCB predict thyroid hormone levels in men. Environ Res 2007; 104, 296-304.
147. Langer R Kocan A, Tajtakova M, et al. Fish from industrially polluted freshwater as the main source of organochlorinated pollutants and increased frequency of thyroid disorders and dysglycemia. Chemosphere 2007;67:S379-S385.
148. Schell LM, Gallo MV, Denham M, et al. Relationship of thyroid hormone levels to levels of polychlorinated biphenyls, lead, p,p'-DDE and other toxicants in Akwesasne Mohawk youth. Environ Health Perspect 2008;116:806-813.
149. Osius N, Karmaus W, Kruse H, Witten J. Exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and levels of thyroid hormones in children. Environ Health Perspect 1999;107:843-849.
150. Chen AY, Jemel A, Ward EM. Increasing incidence of differentiated thyroid cancer in the United States, 1988-2005. Cancer 2009;115:3801-3807.
151. Enewold L, Zhu K, Ron E, et al. Rising thyroid cancer incidence in the United States by demographic tumor characteristics, 1980-2005. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2009;18:784-791.
152. Hard GC. Recent developments in the investigation of thyroid regulation and thyroid carcinogenesis. Environ Health Perspect 1998;106:427-436.
153. Kriebel D, Tickner J, Epstein R et al. The precautionary principle in environmental science. Environ Health Perspect 2001;109:871-876.
154. Tretjak Z, Shields M, Beckmann SL. PCB reduction and clinical improvement by detoxification: an unexploited approach? Hum Exp Toxicol 1990;9:235-244.
155. Crinnion W Components of practical clinical detox programs - sauna as a therapeutic tool. Altern Ther Health Med 2007;13:S154-S156.
156. Jandacek RJ, Rider T, Keller ER, Tso R. The effect of olestra on the absorption, excretion and storage of 2,2'5,5' tetrachlorobiphenyl; 3,3'4,4' tetrachlorobiphenyl; and perfluorooctanoic acid. Environ Int 2009 Jul 16. [Epub ahead of print]
157. Redgrave TG, Wallace R Jandacek RJ, Tso R Treatment with a dietary fat substitute decreased Arochlor 1254 contamination in an obese diabetic male. J Nutr Biochem 2005;16:383-384.
158. Jandacek RJ, Tso R. Enterohepatic circulation of organochlorine compounds: a site for nutritional intervention. J Nutr Biochem 2007;18:163-167.