Regional Anesthesia

A Practice of Anesthesia for Infants and Children

Volumn , Issue , 2009, Pages 867-910

  Polaner, David M ^a,b   Suresh, Santhanam ^c,d   Coté, Charles J ^e,f  

^a UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b CHILDREN S HOSPITAL   (United States)

^c NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^d CHILDREN'S MEMORIAL HOSPITAL   (United States)

^e HARVARD MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

^f MASSACHUSETTS GENERAL HOSPITAL   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 72749115580     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-141603134-5.50046-9     Document Type: Chapter

References (341)

1. Yaster M, Maxwell LG Pediatric regional anesthesia. Anesthesiology 1989, 70:324-338.
2. Dalens B Regional anesthesia in children. Anesth Analg 1989, 68:654-672.
3. Giaufre E, Dalens B, Gombert A Epidemiology and morbidity of regional anesthesia in children: a one-year prospective survey of the French-Language Society of Pediatric Anesthesiologists. Anesth Analg 1996, 83:904-912.
4. Ravilly S, Robinson W, Suresh S, et al. Chronic pain in cystic fibrosis. Pediatrics 1996, 98:741-777.
5. Fratacci MD, Kimball WR, Wain JC, et al. Diaphragmatic shortening after thoracic surgery in humans: effects of mechanical ventilation and thoracic epidural anesthesia. Anesthesiology 1993, 79:654-665.
6. Polaner DM, Kimball WR, Fratacci MD, et al. Thoracic epidural anesthesia increases diaphragmatic shortening after thoracotomy in the awake lamb. Anesthesiology 1993, 79:808-816.
7. Manikian B, Cantineau JP, Bertrand M, et al. Improvement of diaphragmatic function by a thoracic extradural block after upper abdominal surgery. Anesthesiology 1988, 68:379-386.
8. Sung C-Y, Truant AP The physiological disposition of lidocaine and its comparison in some respects with procaine. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1954, 112:432-443.
9. Brodie BB, Lief PA, Poet R The fate of procaine in man following its intravenous administration and methods for the estimation of procaine and diethylaminoethanol. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1948, 94:359-366.
10. Harkema JR Comparative aspects of nasal airway anatomy: relevance to inhalation toxicology. Toxicol Pathol 1991, 19:321-336.
11. Ward RM Pharmacologic principles and practicalities. Avery's Diseases of the Newborn 1998, 404-412. WB Saunders, Philadelphia. 7th ed. H.W. Taeusch, R.A. Ballard (Eds.).
12. Ward RM, Lugo RA Drug therapy in the newborn. Neonatology: Pathophysiology and Management of the Newborn 1999, 1363-1406. JB Lippincott, Philadelphia. 5th ed. G.B.N. Avery, M.A. Fletcher, M. MacDonald (Eds.).
13. Besunder JB, Reed MD, Blumer JL Principles of drug biodisposition in the neonate: a critical evaluation of the pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic interface: I. Clin Pharmacokinet 1988, 14:189-216.
14. Besunder JB, Reed MD, Blumer JL Principles of drug biodisposition in the neonate: a critical evaluation of the pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic interface: II. Clin Pharmacokinet 1988, 14:261-286.
15. Levy G Pharmacokinetics of fetal and neonatal exposure to drugs. Obstet Gynecol 1981, 58(Suppl):9S-16S.
16. Rane A, Sjoqvist F Drug metabolism in the human fetus and newborn infant. Pediatr Clin North Am 1972, 19:37-49.
17. Ward RM, Mirkin BL Perinatal/neonatal pharmacology. Human Pharmacology: Molecular-to-Clinical 1998, 873-883. Mosby-Year Book, St. Louis. 3rd ed. T.M. Brody, J. Larner, K.P. Minneman (Eds.).
18. Cook DR Paediatric anaesthesia: pharmacological considerations. Drugs 1976, 12:212-221.
19. Cook DR, Marcy JH Neonatal Anesthesia 1988, Appleton Davis, Pasadena, CA.
20. Brown AK, Zuelzer WW, Burnett HH Studies on the neonatal development of the glucuronide conjugating system. J Clin Invest 1958, 37:332-340.
21. Shnider SM, Way EL The kinetics of transfer of lidocaine (Xylocaine) across the human placenta. Anesthesiology 1968, 29:944-950.
22. Magno R, Berlin A, Karlsson K, Kjellmer I Anesthesia for cesarean section: IV. Placental transfer and neonatal elimination of bupivacaine following epidural analgesia for elective cesarean section. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1976, 20:141-146.
23. Brown WU, Bell GC, Lurie AO, et al. Newborn blood levels of lidocaine and mepivacaine in the first postnatal day following maternal epidural anesthesia. Anesthesiology 1975, 42:698-707.
24. Meffin P, Long GJ, Thomas J Clearance and metabolism of mepivacaine in the human neonate. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1973, 14:218-225.
25. Rothstein P, Arthur GR, Feldman HS, et al. Bupivacaine for intercostal nerve blocks in children: blood concentrations and pharmacokinetics. Anesth Analg 1986, 65:625-632.
26. Ecoffey C, Desparmet J, Berdeaux A, et al. Pharmacokinetics of lignocaine in children following caudal anaesthesia. Br J Anaesth 1984, 56:1399-1402.
27. Ecoffey C, Desparmet J, Maury M, et al. Bupivacaine in children: pharmacokinetics following caudal anesthesia. Anesthesiology 1985, 63:447-448.
28. Smith T, Moratin P, Wulf H Smaller children have greater bupivacaine plasma concentrations after ilioinguinal block. Br J Anaesth 1996, 76:452-455.
29. Mather LE, Tucker GT Pharmacokinetics and biotransformation of local anesthetics. Int Anesthesiol Clin 1978, 16:23-51.
30. Murat I, Montay G, Delleur MM, et al. Bupivacaine pharmacokinetics during epidural anaesthesia in children. Eur J Anaesthesiol 1988, 5:113-120.
31. Luz G, Innerhofer P, Bachmann B, et al. Bupivacaine plasma concentrations during continuous epidural anesthesia in infants and children. Anesth Analg 1996, 82:231-234.
32. Berde CB Convulsions associated with pediatric regional anesthesia. Anesth Analg 1992, 75:164-166.
33. Huang YF, Pryor ME, Mather LE, Veering BT Cardiovascular and central nervous system effects of intravenous levobupivacaine and bupivacaine in sheep. Anesth Analg 1998, 86:797-804.
34. Bardsley H, Gristwood R, Baker H, et al. A comparison of the cardiovascular effects of levobupivacaine and rac-bupivacaine following intravenous administration to healthy volunteers. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1998, 46:245-249.
35. Chang DH, Ladd LA, Wilson KA, et al. Tolerability of large-dose intravenous levobupivacaine in sheep. Anesth Analg 2000, 91:671-679.
36. Masters DB, Berde CB, Dutta SK, et al. Prolonged regional nerve blockade by controlled release of local anesthetic from a biodegradable polymer matrix. Anesthesiology 1993, 79:340-346.
37. Curley J, Castillo J, Hotz J, et al. Prolonged regional nerve blockade: injectable biodegradable bupivacaine/polyester microspheres. Anesthesiology 1996, 84:1401-1410.
38. Castillo J, Curley J, Hotz J, et al. Glucocorticoids prolong rat sciatic nerve blockade in vivo from bupivacaine microspheres. Anesthesiology 1996, 85:1157-1166.
39. Colombo G, Padera R, Langer R, Kohane DS Prolonged duration local anesthesia with lipid-protein-sugar particles containing bupivacaine and dexamethasone. J Biomed Mater Res A 2005, 75:458-464.
40. Lee S, Kim MS, Kim JS, et al. Controlled delivery of a hydrophilic drug from a biodegradable microsphere system by supercritical anti-solvent precipitation technique. J Microencapsul 2006, 23:741-749.
41. Toongsuwan S, Li LC, Erickson BK, Chang HC Formulation and characterization of bupivacaine lipospheres. Int J Pharm 2004, 280:57-65.
42. Drager C, Benziger D, Gao F, Berde CB Prolonged intercostal nerve blockade in sheep using controlled-release of bupivacaine and dexamethasone from polymer microspheres. Anesthesiology 1998, 89:969-979.
43. Thomas JM, Schug SA Recent advances in the pharmacokinetics of local anaesthetics: Long-acting amide enantiomers and continuous infusions. Clin Pharmacokinet 1999, 36:67-83.
44. Kohane DS, Sankar WN, Shubina M, et al. Sciatic nerve blockade in infant, adolescent, and adult rats: a comparison of ropivacaine with bupivacaine. Anesthesiology 1998, 89:1199-1208.
45. Markham A, Faulds D Ropivacaine: a review of its pharmacology and therapeutic use in regional anaesthesia. Drugs 1996, 52:429-449.
46. Ivani G, Lampugnani E, Torre M, et al. Comparison of ropivacaine with bupivacaine for paediatric caudal block. Br J Anaesth 1998, 81:247-248.
47. Ivani G, Mereto N, Lampugnani E, et al. Ropivacaine in paediatric surgery: preliminary results. Paediatr Anaesth 1998, 8:127-129.
48. Ivani G, Mazzarello G, Lampugnani E, et al. Ropivacaine for central blocks in children. Anaesthesia 1998, 53:74-76.
49. Zsigmond EK, Downs JR Plasma cholinesterase activity in newborns and infants. Can Anaesth Soc J 1971, 18:278-285.
50. Tobias JD, Rasmussen GE, Holcomb GW, et al. Continuous caudal anaesthesia with chloroprocaine as an adjunct to general anaesthesia in neonates. Can J Anaesth 1996, 43:69-72.
51. Henderson K, Sethna NF, Berde CB Continuous caudal anesthesia for inguinal hernia repair in former preterm infants. J Clin Anesth 1993, 5:129-133.
52. Duncan PG, Kobrinsky N Prilocaine-induced methemoglobinemia in a newborn infant. Anesthesiology 1983, 59:75-76.
53. Gourrier E, Karoubi P, el Hanache A, et al. Use of EMLA cream in a department of neonatology. Pain 1996, 68:431-434.
54. Engberg G, Danielson K, Henneberg S, Nilsson A Plasma concentrations of prilocaine and lidocaine and methaemoglobin formation in infants after epicutaneous application of a 5% lidocaine-prilocaine (EMLA). Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1987, 31:624-628.
55. Coté CJ, Strafford MA The Principles of Pediatric Sedation Reference Guide 1998, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston.
56. Browne J, Awad I, Plant R, et al. Topical amethocaine (Ametop) is superior to EMLA for intravenous cannulation: eutectic mixture of local anesthetics. Can J Anaesth 1999, 46:1014-1018.
57. Badgwell JM, Heavner JE, Kytta J Bupivacaine toxicity in young pigs is age-dependent and is affected by volatile anesthetics. Anesthesiology 1990, 73:297-303.
58. Clarkson CW, Hondeghem LM Mechanism for bupivacaine depression of cardiac conduction: fast block of sodium channels during the action potential with slow recovery from block during diastole. Anesthesiology 1985, 62:396-405.
59. Tallman RD, Rosenblatt RM, Weaver JM, Wang YL Verapamil increases the toxicity of local anesthetics. J Clin Pharmacol 1988, 28:317-321.
60. Valenzuela C, Snyders DJ, Bennett PB, et al. Stereoselective block of cardiac sodium channels by bupivacaine in guinea pig ventricular myocytes. Circulation 1995, 92:3014-3024.
61. Nau C, Vogel W, Hempelmann G, Brau ME Stereoselectivity of bupivacaine in local anesthetic-sensitive ion channels of peripheral nerve. Anesthesiology 1999, 91:786-795.
62. Zavisca FG, Kytta J, Heavner JE, Badgwell JM A rodent model for studying four well defined toxic endpoints during bupivacaine infusion. Reg Anesth 1991, 16:223-227.
63. Fisher QA, Shaffner DH, Yaster M Detection of intravascular injection of regional anaesthetics in children. Can J Anaesth 1997, 44:592-598.
64. Freid EB, Bailey AG, Valley RD Electrocardiographic and hemodynamic changes associated with unintentional intravascular injection of bupivacaine with epinephrine in infants. Anesthesiology 1993, 79:394-398.
65. Ogasawara K, Tanaka M, Nishikawa T Choice of electrocardiography lead does not affect the usefulness of the T-wave criterion for detecting intravascular injection of an epinephrine test dose in anesthetized children. Anesth Analg 2003, 97:372-376. table.
66. Ehrnebo M, Agurell S, Jalling B, et al. Age differences in drug binding by plasma proteins: studies in human foetuses, neonates, and adults. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1971, 3:189-193.
67. Morselli PL, Franco-Morselli R, Bossi L Clinical pharmacokinetics in newborns and infants: Age-related differences and therapeutic implications. Clin Pharmacokinet 1980, 5:485-527.
68. Mazoit JX, Denson DD, Samii K Pharmacokinetics of bupivacaine following caudal anesthesia in infants. Anesthesiology 1988, 68:387-391.
69. Tucker GT, Mather LE Clinical pharmacokinetics of local anaesthetics. Clin Pharmacokinet 1979, 4:241-278.
70. Beauvoir C, Rochette A, Desch G, D'Athis F Spinal anaesthesia in newborns: total and free bupivacaine plasma concentration. Paediatr Anaesth 1996, 6:195-199.
71. Lerman J, Strong HA, LeDez KM, et al. Effects of age on the serum concentration of alpha 1-acid glycoprotein and the binding of lidocaine in pediatric patients. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1989, 46:219-225.
72. Booker PD, Taylor C, Saba G Perioperative changes in alpha 1-acid glycoprotein concentrations in infants undergoing major surgery. Br J Anaesth 1996, 76:365-368.
73. Mirkin BL Developmental pharmacology. Annu Rev Pharmacol 1970, 10:255-272.
74. Riquelme CM, Bell B, Edwards J, Brown TC The influence of age on the cardiovascular toxicity of intravenous bupivacaine in young dogs. Anaesth Intensive Care 1987, 15:436-439.
75. Kasten GW, Martin ST Comparison of resuscitation of sheep and dogs after bupivacaine-induced cardiovascular collapse. Anesth Analg 1986, 65:1029-1032.
76. McCloskey JJ, Haun SE, Deshpande JK Bupivacaine toxicity secondary to continuous caudal epidural infusion in children. Anesth Analg 1992, 75:287-290.
77. Luz G, Ladner E, Innerhofer P, Deusch E Accidents following extradural analgesia in children: the results of a retrospective study. Paediatr Anaesth 1995, 5:273.
78. Flandin-Blety C, Barrier G Accidents following extradural analgesia in children: the results of a retrospective study. Paediatr Anaesth 1995, 5:41-46.
79. Goldman LJ Complications in regional anaesthesia. Paediatr Anaesth 1995, 5:3-9.
80. De Jong RH, Heavner JE Local anesthetic seizure prevention: diazepam versus pentobarbital. Anesthesiology 1972, 36:449-457.
81. Reidenberg MM, James M, Dring LG The rate of procaine hy-drolysis in serum of normal subjects and diseased patients. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1972, 13:279-284.
82. Selden R, Sasahara AA Central nervous system toxicity induced by lidocaine: report of a case in a patient with liver disease. JAMA 1967, 202:908-909.
83. Thomson PD, Melmon KL, Richardson JA, et al. Lidocaine pharmacokinetics in advanced heart failure, liver disease, and renal failure in humans. Ann Intern Med 1973, 78:499-508.
84. Englesson S The influence of acid-base changes on central nervous system toxicity of local anaesthetic agents: I. An experimental study in cats. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1974, 18:79-87.
85. Englesson S, Grevsten S The influence of acid-base changes on central nervous system toxicity of local anaesthetic agents: II. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1974, 18:88-103.
86. Covino BG, Vassallo HG Local Anesthetics: Mechanisms of Action and Clinical Use 1976, Grune & Stratton, New York.
87. Doyle E, Morton NS, McNicol LR Plasma bupivacaine levels after fascia iliaca compartment block with and without adrenaline. Paediatr Anaesth 1997, 7:121-124.
88. Mobley KA, Wandless JG, Fell D, McBurney A Serum bupivacaine concentration following wound infiltration in children undergoing inguinal herniotomy. Anaesthesia 1991, 46:500-501.
89. Hartley EJ, Bissonnette B, St.Louis P, et al. Scalp infiltration with bupivacaine in pediatric brain surgery. Anesth Analg 1991, 73:29-32.
90. Morikawa KI, Bonica JJ, Tucker GT, Murphy TM Effect of acute hypovolaemia on lignocaine absorption and cardiovascular response following epidural block in dogs. Br J Anaesth 1974, 46:631-635.
91. Melgrave AP The use of epinephrine in the presence of halothane in children. Can Anaesth Soc J 1970, 17:256-260.
92. Karl HW, Swedlow DB, Lee KW, Downes JJ Epinephrine-halothane interactions in children. Anesthesiology 1983, 58:142-145.
93. Ueda W, Hirakawa M, Mae O Appraisal of epinephrine administration to patients under halothane anesthesia for closure of cleft palate. Anesthesiology 1983, 58:574-576.
94. Moore DC, Balfour RI, Fitzgibbons D Convulsive arterial plasma levels of bupivacaine and the response to diazepam therapy. Anesthesiology 1979, 50:454-456.
95. Raines A, Henderson TR, Swinyard EA, Dretchen KL Comparison of midazolam and diazepam by the intramuscular route for the control of seizures in a mouse model of status epilepticus. Epilepsia 1990, 31:313-317.
96. Bruguerolle B, Merland V, Prat M Bupivacaine kinetics in serum, cardiac and brain tissues: effect of diazepam pretreatment in mice. Life Sci 1991, 48:569-574.
97. Bruguerolle B, Giaufre E, Morisson-Lacombe G, et al. Bupivacaine free plasma levels in children after caudal anaesthesia: influence of pretreatment with diazepam?. Fundam Clin Pharmacol 1990, 4:159-161.
98. Bernards CM, Carpenter RL, Rupp SM, et al. Effect of midazolam and diazepam premedication on central nervous system and cardiovascular toxicity of bupivacaine in pigs. Anesthesiology 1989, 70:318-323.
99. Moore DC, Batra MS The components of an effective test dose prior to epidural block. Anesthesiology 1981, 55:693-696.
100. Desparmet J, Mateo J, Ecoffey C, Mazoit X Efficacy of an epidural test dose in children anesthetized with halothane. Anesthesiology 1990, 72:249-251.
101. Liu SS Hemodynamic responses to an epinephrine test dose in adults during epidural or combined epidural-general anesthesia. Anesth Analg 1996, 83:97-101.
102. Tanaka M, Nishikawa T The efficacy of a simulated intravascular test dose in sevoflurane-anesthetized children: a dose-response study. Anesth Analg 1999, 89:632-637.
103. Perillo M, Sethna NF, Berde CB Intravenous isoproterenol as a marker for epidural test-dosing in children. Anesth Analg 1993, 76:178-181.
104. Kozek-Langenecker S, Chiari A, Semsroth M Simulation of an epidural test dose with intravenous isoproterenol in awake and in halothane-anesthetized children. Anesthesiology 1996, 85:277-280.
105. Tanaka M Epidural test dose: isoproterenol is a reliable marker for intravascular injection in anesthetized adults. Anesth Analg 1996, 82:1056-1059.
106. Tanaka M Simulation of an epidural test dose with intravenous isoproterenol in isoflurane-anesthetized adults. Anesth Analg 1997, 85:639-643.
107. Tanaka M, Nishikawa T The combination of epinephrine and isoproterenol as a simulated epidural test dose in isoflurane-anesthetized adults. Anesth Analg 1998, 86:1312-1317.
108. Weinberg G, Ripper R, Feinstein DL, Hoffman W Lipid emulsion infusion rescues dogs from bupivacaine-induced cardiac toxicity. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2003, 28:198-202.
109. Rosenblatt MA, Abel M, Fischer GW, et al. Successful use of a 20% lipid emulsion to resuscitate a patient after a presumed bupivacaine-related cardiac arrest. Anesthesiology 2006, 105:217-218.
110. Ludot H, Tharin JY, Belouadah M, et al. Successful resuscitation after ropivacaine and lidocaine-induced ventricular arrhythmia following posterior lumbar plexus block in a child. Anesth Analg 2008, 106:1572-1574.
111. Litz RJ, Roessel T, Heller AR, Stehr SN Reversal of central nervous system and cardiac toxicity after local anesthetic intoxication by lipid emulsion injection. Anesth Analg 2008, 106:1575-1577.
112. Foxall G, McCahon R, Lamb J, et al. Levobupivacaine-induced seizures and cardiovascular collapse treated with Intralipid. Anaesthesia 2007, 62:516-518.
113. Weinberg GL, Ripper R, Murphy P, et al. Lipid infusion accelerates removal of bupivacaine and recovery from bupivacaine toxicity in the isolated rat heart. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2006, 31:296-303.
114. Weinberg G, Hertz P, Newman J Lipid, not propofol, treats bu-pivacaine overdose. Anesth Analg 2004, 99:1875-1876.
115. Heavner JE, Pitkanen MT, Shi B, Rosenberg PH Resuscitation from bupivacaine-induced asystole in rats: comparison of different cardioactive drugs. Anesth Analg 1995, 80:1134-1139.
116. Feldman HS, Arthur GR, Pitkanen M, et al. Treatment of acute systemic toxicity after the rapid intravenous injection of ropivacaine and bupivacaine in the conscious dog. Anesth Analg 1991, 73:373-384.
117. Maxwell LG, Martin LD, Yaster M Bupivacaine-induced cardiac toxicity in neonates: successful treatment with intravenous phenytoin. Anesthesiology 1994, 80:682-686.
118. Covino BG Local anesthesia: 1. N Engl J Med 1972, 286:975-983.
119. Covino BG Local anesthesia: 2. N Engl J Med 1972, 286:1035-1042.
120. Long WB, Rosenblum S, Grady IP Successful resuscitation of bupivacaine-induced cardiac arrest using cardiopulmonary bypass. Anesth Analg 1989, 69:403-406.
121. Glinert RJ, Zachary CB Local anesthetic allergy: its recognition and avoidance. J Dermatol Surg Oncol 1991, 17:491-496.
122. Ruzicka T, Gerstmeier M, Przybilla B, Ring J Allergy to local anesthetics: comparison of patch test with prick and intradermal test results. J Am Acad Dermatol 1987, 16:1202-1208.
123. Chandler MJ, Grammer LC, Patterson R Provocative challenge with local anesthetics in patients with a prior history of reaction. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1987, 79:883-886.
124. Schwartz HJ, Sher TH Bisulfite sensitivity manifesting as allergy to local dental anesthesia. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1985, 75:525-527.
125. Klein CE, Gall H Type IV allergy to amide-type local anesthetics. Contact Dermatitis 1991, 25:45-48.
126. Bircher AJ, Messmer SL, Surber C, Rufli T Delayed-type hypersensitivity to subcutaneous lidocaine with tolerance to articaine: confirmation by in vivo and in vitro tests. Contact Dermatitis 1996, 34:387-389.
127. Sindel LJ, deShazo RD Accidents resulting from local anesthetics: true or false allergy?. Clin Rev Allergy 1991, 9:379-395.
128. Marhofer P, Chan VW Ultrasound-guided regional anesthesia: current concepts and future trends. Anesth Analg 2007, 104:1265-1269. tables.
129. Smith BE, Allison A Use of a low-power nerve stimulator during sciatic nerve block. Anaesthesia 1987, 42:296-298.
130. Bosenberg AT Lower limb nerve blocks in children using unsheathed needles and a nerve stimulator. Anaesthesia 1995, 50:206-210.
131. Desparmet JF Total spinal anesthesia after caudal anesthesia in an infant. Anesth Analg 1990, 70:665-667.
132. Kosaka Y, Sato K, Kawaguchi R [Distance from the skin to the epidural space in children]. [Japanese]. Masui 1974, 23:874-875.
133. Lups S, Haan AMFH, Bailey P The Cerebrospinal Fluid 1954, Elsevier, Amsterdam.
134. Cutler RWP, Spertell RB Formation and absorption of cerebrospinal fluid in man. Brain 1968, 91:707-720.
135. Otila E Studies on the cerebrospinal fluid of premature infants. Acta Paediatr Scand 1948, 35:3-100.
136. Kruse F Cerebrale Krankheiten des Kindesalters in typischen Encephalogrammen. Ergeb Inn Med Kinderheilkd 1930, 37:333-464.
137. Samson K Der normale Liquor cerebrospinalis im ersten Lebenstrimenon. Gesamte Neurol Psychiat 1930, 128:494-503.
138. Dohi S, Naito H, Takahashi T Age-related changes in blood pressure and duration of motor block in spinal anesthesia. Anesthesiology 1979, 50:319-323.
139. Tsuji MH, Horigome H, Yamashita M Left ventricular functions are not impaired after lumbar epidural anaesthesia in young children. Paediatr Anaesth 1996, 6:405-409.
140. Oberlander TF, Berde CB, Lam KH, et al. Infants tolerate spinal anesthesia with minimal overall autonomic changes: analysis of heart rate variability in former premature infants undergoing hernia repair. Anesth Analg 1995, 80:20-27.
141. Payen D, Ecoffey C, Carli P, Dubousset AM Pulsed Doppler ascending aortic, carotid, brachial, and femoral artery blood flows during caudal anesthesia in infants. Anesthesiology 1987, 67:681-685.
142. Bonnet MP, Larousse E, Asehnoune K, Benhamou D Spinal anesthesia with bupivacaine decreases cerebral blood flow in former preterm infants. Anesth Analg 2004, 98:1280-1283.
143. Jetzek-Zader M, Hermanns H, Freynhagen R, et al. Increase in skin temperature after spinal anesthesia in infants. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2006, 31:519-522.
144. Pascucci RC, Hershenson MB, Sethna NF, et al. Chest wall motion of infants during spinal anesthesia. J Appl Physiol 1990, 68:2087-2091.
145. Warren RH, Horan SM, Robertson PK Chest wall motion in preterm infants using respiratory inductive plethysmography. Eur Respir J 1997, 10:2295-2300.
146. Tusiewicz K, Bryan AC, Froese AB Contributions of changing rib cage-diaphragm interactions to the ventilatory depression of halothane anesthesia. Anesthesiology 1977, 47:327-337.
147. Easton PA, Fitting JW, Arnoux R, et al. Recovery of diaphragm function after laparotomy and chronic sonomicrometer implantation. J Appl Physiol 1989, 66:613-621.
148. Dureuil B, Viires N, Cantineau JP, et al. Diaphragmatic contractility after upper abdominal surgery. J Appl Physiol 1986, 61:1775-1780.
149. Torres A, Kimball WR, Qvist J, et al. Sonomicrometric regional diaphragmatic shortening in awake sheep after thoracic surgery. J Appl Physiol 1989, 67:2357-2368.
150. Road JD, Burgess KR, Whitelaw WA, Ford GT Diaphragm function and respiratory response after upper abdominal surgery in dogs. J Appl Physiol 1984, 57:576-582.
151. Bromage P Spirometry in the assessment of analgesia after abdominal surgery. BMJ 1955, 2:589-593.
152. Spence AA, Smith G Postoperative analgesia and lung function: a comparison of morphine with extradural block. Br J Anaesth 1971, 43:144-148.
153. Simonneau G, Vivien A, Sartene R, et al. Diaphragm dysfunction induced by upper abdominal surgery: role of postoperative pain. Am Rev Respir Dis 1983, 128:899-903.
154. Ballantyne JC, Carr DB, deFerranti S, et al. The comparative effects of postoperative analgesic therapies on pulmonary outcome: cumulative meta-analyses of randomized, controlled trials. Anesth Analg 1998, 86:598-612.
155. Bainbridge WS Analgesia in children by spinal injection, with a report of a new method of sterilization of the injection fluid. Med Rec 1900, 58:937-940.
156. Gray HT A study of spinal anaesthesia in children and infants: from a series of 200 cases: I. Lancet 1909, 2:913-917.
157. Gray HT A study of spinal anaesthesia in children and infants: From a series of 200 cases: II. A study of the second series of 100 cases. Lancet 1909, 2:991-996.
158. Gray HT A further study of spinal anaesthesia in children and infants. Lancet 1910, 1:1611-1616.
159. Williams RK, McBride WJ, Abajian JC Combined spinal and epidural anaesthesia for major abdominal surgery in infants. Can J Anaesth 1997, 44:511-514.
160. Sartorelli KH, Abajian JC, Kreutz JM, Vane DW Improved outcome utilizing spinal anesthesia in high-risk infants. J Pediatr Surg 1992, 27:1022-1025.
161. Viscomi CM, Abajian JC, Wald SL, et al. Spinal anesthesia for repair of meningomyelocele in neonates. Anesth Analg 1995, 81:492-495.
162. Williams RK, Abajian JC High spinal anaesthesia for repair of patent ductus arteriosus in neonates. Paediatr Anaesth 1997, 7:205-209.
163. Aronsson DD, Gemery JM, Abajian JC Spinal anesthesia for spine and lower extremity surgery in infants. J Pediatr Orthop 1996, 16:259-263.
164. Vane DW, Abajian JC, Hong AR Spinal anesthesia for primary repair of gastroschisis: a new and safe technique for selected patients. J Pediatr Surg 1994, 29:1234-1235.
165. Liu LM, Coté CJ, Goudsouzian NG, et al. Life-threatening apnea in infants recovering from anesthesia. Anesthesiology 1983, 59:506-510.
166. Kurth CD, Spitzer AR, Broennle AM, Downes JJ Postoperative apnea in preterm infants. Anesthesiology 1987, 66:483-488.
167. Coté CJ, Zaslavsky A, Downes JJ, et al. Postoperative apnea in former preterm infants after inguinal herniorrhaphy: a combined analysis. Anesthesiology 1995, 82:809-822.
168. Welborn LG, Rice LJ, Hannallah RS, et al. Postoperative apnea in former preterm infants: prospective comparison of spinal and general anesthesia. Anesthesiology 1990, 72:838-842.
169. Krane EJ, Haberkern CM, Jacobson LE Postoperative apnea, bradycardia, and oxygen desaturation in formerly premature infants: prospective comparison of spinal and general anesthesia. Anesth Analg 1995, 80:7-13.
170. Wright TE, Orr RJ, Haberkern CM, Walbergh EJ Complications during spinal anesthesia in infants: high spinal blockade. Anesthesiology 1990, 73:1290-1292.
171. Watcha MF, Thach BT, Gunter JB Postoperative apnea after caudal anesthesia in an ex-premature infant. Anesthesiology 1989, 71:613-615.
172. Cox RG, Goresky GV Life-threatening apnea following spinal anesthesia in former premature infants. Anesthesiology 1990, 73:345-347.
173. Tobias JD, Flannagan J Regional anesthesia in the preterm neonate. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 1992, 31:668-671.
174. Williams RK, Abajian JC High spinal anaesthesia for repair of patent ductus arteriosus in neonates. Paediatr Anaesth 1997, 7:205-209.
175. Finkel JC, Boltz MG, Conran AM Haemodynamic changes during high spinal anaesthesia in children having open heart surgery. Paediatr Anaesth 2003, 13:48-52.
176. Katznelson R, Mishaly D, Hegesh T, et al. Spinal anesthesia for diagnostic cardiac catheterization in high-risk infants. Paediatr Anaesth 2005, 15:50-53.
177. Hammer GB, Ngo K, Macario A A retrospective examination of regional plus general anesthesia in children undergoing open heart surgery. Anesth Analg 2000, 90:1020-1024.
178. Hammer GB, Ramamoorthy C, Cao H, et al. Postoperative analgesia after spinal blockade in infants and children undergoing cardiac surgery. Anesth Analg 2005, 100:1283-1288.
179. Tobias JD, Flannagan J, Brock J, Brin E Neonatal regional anesthesia: alternative to general anesthesia for urologic surgery. Urology 1993, 41:362-365.
180. Welborn LG, Greenspun JC Anesthesia and apnea: perioperative considerations in the former preterm infant. Pediatr Clin North Am 1994, 41:181-198.
181. Bosenberg AT, Bland BA, Schulte-Steinberg O, Downing JW Thoracic epidural anesthesia via caudal route in infants. Anesthesiology 1988, 69:265-269.
182. Gingrich BK Spinal anesthesia for a former premature infant undergoing upper abdominal surgery. Anesthesiology 1993, 79:189-190.
183. Spear RM, Deshpande JK, Maxwell LG Caudal anesthesia in the awake, high-risk infant. Anesthesiology 1988, 69:407-409.
184. Antognini JF, Jinks SL, Atherley R, et al. Spinal anaesthesia indirectly depresses cortical activity associated with electrical stimulation of the reticular formation. Br J Anaesth 2003, 91:233-238.
185. Hermanns H, Stevens MF, Werdehausen R, et al. Sedation during spinal anaesthesia in infants. Br J Anaesth 2006, 97:380-384.
186. Gleason CA, Martin RJ, Anderson JV, et al. Optimal position for a spinal tap in preterm infants. Pediatrics 1983, 71:31-35.
187. Weisman LE, Merenstein GB, Steenbarger JR The effect of lumbar puncture position in sick neonates. Am J Dis Child 1983, 137:1077-1079.
188. Kokki H, Salonvaara M, Herrgard E, Onen P Postdural puncture headache is not an age-related symptom in children: a prospective, open-randomized, parallel group study comparing a 22-gauge Quincke with a 22-gauge Whitacre needle. Paediatr Anaesth 1999, 9:429-434.
189. Kokki H, Hendolin H, Turunen M Postdural puncture headache and transient neurologic symptoms in children after spinal anaesthesia using cutting and pencil point paediatric spinal needles. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1998, 42:1076-1082.
190. Bailey A, Valley R, Bigler R High spinal anesthesia in an infant. Anesthesiology 1989, 70:560.
191. Abajian JC, Mellish RW, Browne AF, et al. Spinal anesthesia for surgery in the high-risk infant. Anesth Analg 1984, 63:359-362.
192. Harnik EV, Hoy GR, Potolicchio S, et al. Spinal anesthesia in premature infants recovering from respiratory distress syndrome. Anesthesiology 1986, 64:95-99.
193. Blaise G, Roy WL Spinal anesthesia in children. Anesth Analg 1984, 63:1140-1141.
194. Mahe V, Ecoffey C Spinal anesthesia with isobaric bupivacaine in infants. Anesthesiology 1988, 68:601-603.
195. Parkinson SK, Little WL, Mueller JB, et al. Duration of spinal anesthesia using hyperbaric bupivacaine with epinephrine in infants. Anesthesiology 1989, 71:A1019.
196. Rice LJ, DeMars PD, Whalen TV, et al. Duration of spinal anesthesia in infants less than one year of age: comparison of three hyperbaric techniques. Reg Anesth 1994, 19:325-329.
197. Kokki H, Tuovinen K, Hendolin H Spinal anaesthesia for paediatric day-case surgery: a double-blind, randomized, parallel group, prospective comparison of isobaric and hyperbaric bupivacaine. Br J Anaesth 1998, 81:502-506.
198. Rochette A, Raux O, Troncin R, et al. Clonidine prolongs spinal anesthesia in newborns: a prospective dose-ranging study. Anesth Analg 2004, 98:56-59.
199. Hodgson PS, Neal JM, Pollock JE, Liu SS The neurotoxicity of drugs given intrathecally (spinal). Anesth Analg 1999, 88:797-809.
200. Severinghaus JW Intrathecally, Caine may dis-Able: reflections on lidocaine for spinal anesthesia. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand Suppl 1998, 113:3-7.
201. Beardsley D, Holman S, Gantt R, et al. Transient neurologic deficit after spinal anesthesia: local anesthetic maldistribution with pencil point needles?. Anesth Analg 1995, 81:314-320.
202. Blaise GA, Roy WL Spinal anaesthesia for minor paediatric surgery. Can Anaesth Soc J 1986, 33:227-230.
203. Berkowitz S, Greene BA Spinal anesthesia in children: report based on 350 patients under 13 years of age. Anesthesiology 1951, 12:376-387.
204. Slater HM, Stephen CR Hypobaric pontocaine spinal anaesthesia in children. Anesthesiology 1950, 11:709-715.
205. Vereanu D [Spinalni anestezie v pediatricke chirurgii]. Cas Lek Csek 1962, 101:1206-1209.
206. Bolder PM Postlumbar puncture headache in pediatric oncology patients. Anesthesiology 1986, 65:696-698.
207. Purtock RV, Buhl JL, Abram SE Epidural blood patch in a nine-year-old boy. Reg Anesth 1984, 9:154-155.
208. Lund PC, Seldon TH Principles and Practice of Spinal Anesthesia 1971, Charles C Thomas, Springfield, IL.
209. Blockey NJ, Schorstein J Intraspinal epidermoid tumours in the lumbar region of children. J Bone Joint Surg Br 1961, 43:556-562.
210. Choremis C, Economos D, Papatos C, Gargoulas A Intraspinal epidermoid tumours (cholesteatomas) in patients treated for tuberculous meningitis. Lancet 1956, 2:437-439.
211. Manno NJ, Uihlein A, Kernohan JW Intraspinal epidermoids. J Neurol Surg 1962, 19:754-765.
212. Stienstra R, Van Poorten F Speed of injection does not affect
213. Campbell MF Caudal anesthesia in children. J Urol 1933, 30:245-249.
214. Spiegel P Caudal anesthesia in pediatric surgery: a preliminary report. Anesth Analg 1962, 41:218-221.
215. Ruston FG Epidural anaesthesia in paediatric surgery: present status in the Hamilton General Hospital. Can Anaesth Soc J 1961, 11:12-34.
216. Fortuna A Caudal analgesia: a simple and safe technique in paediatric surgery. Br J Anaesth 1967, 39:165-170.
217. Melman E, Penuelas JA, Marrufo J Regional anesthesia in children. Anesth Analg 1975, 54:387-390.
218. Jensen BH Caudal block for post-operative pain relief in children after genital operations: a comparison between bupivacaine and morphine. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1981, 25:373-375.
219. Lunn JN Postoperative analgesia after circumcision: a randomized comparison between caudal analgesia and intramuscular morphine in boys. Anaesthesia 1979, 34:552-554.
220. McGown RG Caudal analgesia in children: five hundred cases for procedures below the diaphragm. Anaesthesia 1982, 37:806-818.
221. Takasaki M, Dohi S, Kawabata Y, Takahashi T Dosage of lidocaine for caudal anesthesia in infants and children. Anesthesiology 1977, 47:527-529.
222. Melman E, Arenas JA, Tandazo WE Caudal anesthesia for pediatric surgery: an easy and safe method for calculating dose requirements. Anesthesiology 1985, 63:A463.
223. Schulte-Steinberg O, Rahlfs VW Caudal anaesthesia in children and spread of 1 per cent lignocaine: a statistical study. Br J Anaesth 1970, 42:1093-1099.
224. Hassan SZ Caudal anesthesia in infants. Anesth Analg 1977, 56:686-689.
225. Blaise G, Roy WL Postoperative pain relief after hypospadias repair in pediatric patients: regional analgesia versus systemic analgesics. Anesthesiology 1986, 65:84-86.
226. Satoyoshi M, Kamiyama Y Caudal anaesthesia for upper abdominal surgery in infants and children: a simple calculation of the volume of local anaesthetic. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1984, 28:57-60.
227. Hain WR Anaesthetic doses for extradural anaesthesia in children. Br J Anaesth 1978, 50:303.
228. Armitage EN Caudal block in children. Anaesthesia 1979, 34:396.
229. Lourey CJ, McDonald IH Caudal anaesthesia in infants and children. Anaesth Intensive Care 1973, 1:547-548.
230. Dalens B, Hasnaoui A Caudal anesthesia in pediatric surgery: success rate and adverse effects in 750 consecutive patients. Anesth Analg 1989, 68:83-89.
231. Afshan G, Khan FA Total spinal anaesthesia following caudal block with bupivacaine and buprenorphine. Paediatr Anaesth 1996, 6:239-242.
232. Rice LJ, Pudimat MA, Hannallah RS Timing of caudal block placement in relation to surgery does not affect duration of postoperative analgesia in paediatric ambulatory patients. Can Anaesth Soc J 1990, 37:429-431.
233. Owens WD, Slater EM, Battit GE A new technique of caudal anesthesia. Anesthesiology 1973, 39:451-453.
234. van Niekerk J, Bax-Vermeire BM, Geurts JW, Kramer PP Epidurography in premature infants. Anaesthesia 1990, 45:722-725.
235. Krane EJ, Dalens BJ, Murat I, Murrell D The safety of epidurals placed during general anesthesia. Reg Anesth Pain Med 1998, 23:433-438.
236. Horlocker TT, Abel MD, Messick JM, Schroeder DR Small risk of serious neurologic complications related to lumbar epidural catheter placement in anesthetized patients. Anesth Analg 2003, 96:1547-1552.
237. Saberski LR, Kondamuri S, Osinubi OY Identification of the epidural space: is loss of resistance to air a safe technique? A review of the complications related to the use of air. Reg Anesth 1997, 22:3-15.
238. Schwartz N, Eisenkraft JB Probable venous air embolism during epidural placement in an infant. Anesth Analg 1993, 76:1136-1138.
239. Sethna NF, Berde CB Venous air embolism during identification of the epidural space in children. Anesth Analg 1993, 76:925-927.
240. Kumagai M, Yamashita M Sacral intervertebral approach for epidural anaesthesia in infants and children: application of "drip and tube" method. Anaesth Intensive Care 1995, 23:469-471.
241. Yamashita M, Tsuji M Identification of the epidural space in children. The application of a micro-drip infusion set. Anaesthesia 1991, 46:872-874.
242. Osaka Y, Yamashita M Intervertebral epidural anesthesia in 2,050 infants and children using the drip and tube method. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2003, 28:103-107.
243. Pegues DA, Carr DB, Hopkins CC Infectious complications associated with temporary epidural catheters. Clin Infect Dis 1994, 19:970-972.
244. Strafford MA, Wilder RT, Berde CB The risk of infection from epidural analgesia in children: a review of 1620 cases. Anesth Analg 1995, 80:234-238.
245. Kilpatrick ME, Girgis NI Meningitis-a complication of spinal anesthesia. Anesth Analg 1983, 62:513-515.
246. Usubiaga JE Neurological complications following epidural anesthesia. Int Anesthesiol Clin 1975, 13:1-153.
247. Smitt PS, Tsafka A, Teng-van de Zande F, et al. Outcome and complications of epidural analgesia in patients with chronic cancer pain. Cancer 1998, 83:2015-2022.
248. Holt HM, Andersen SS, Andersen O, et al. Infections following epidural catheterization. J Hosp Infect 1995, 30:253-260.
249. Llewellyn N, Moriarty A The national pediatric epidural audit. Paediatr Anaesth 2007, 17:520-533.
250. Kost-Byerly S, Tobin JR, Greenberg RS, et al. Bacterial colonization and infection rate of continuous epidural catheters in children. Anesth Analg 1998, 86:712-716.
251. Fisher QA, McComiskey CM, Hill JL, et al. Postoperative voiding interval and duration of analgesia following peripheral or caudal nerve blocks in children. Anesth Analg 1993, 76:173-177.
252. Pappas AL, Sukhani R, Hatch D Caudal anesthesia and urinary retention in ambulatory surgery. Anesth Analg 1997, 85:706.
253. Valley RD, Bailey AG Caudal morphine for postoperative analgesia in infants and children: a report of 138 cases. Anesth Analg 1991, 72:120-124.
254. Krane EJ, Tyler DC, Jacobson LE The dose response of caudal morphine in children. Anesthesiology 1989, 71:48-52.
255. Wilson PT, Lloyd-Thomas AR An audit of extradural infusion analgesia in children using bupivacaine and diamorphine. Anaesthesia 1993, 48:718-723.
256. Dalens BJ, Mazoit JX Adverse effects of regional anaesthesia in children. Drug Saf 1998, 19:251-268.
257. Bouaziz H, Okubo N, Malinovsky JM, et al. The age-related effects of epidural lidocaine, with and without epinephrine, on spinal cord blood flow in anesthetized rabbits. Anesth Analg 1999, 88:1302-1307.
258. Ivani G, Lampugnani E, De Negri P, et al. Ropivacaine vs bupivacaine in major surgery in infants. Can J Anaesth 1999, 46:467-469.
259. Nuttall GA, Barnett MR, Smith RL, et al. Establishing intravenous access: a study of local anesthetic efficacy. Anesth Analg 1993, 770:950-953.
260. Palmon SC, Lloyd AT, Kirsch JR The effect of needle gauge and lidocaine pH on pain during intradermal injection. Anesth Analg 1998, 86:379-381.
261. Curatolo M, Petersen-Felix S, Arendt-Nielsen L, et al. Adding sodium bicarbonate to lidocaine enhances the depth of epidural blockade. Anesth Analg 1998, 86:341-347.
262. Scarfone RJ, Jasani M, Gracely EJ Pain of local anesthetics: rate of administration and buffering. Ann Emerg Med 1998, 31:36-40.
263. Wong K, Strichartz GR, Raymond SA On the mechanisms of potentiation of local anesthetics by bicarbonate buffer: drug structure-activity studies on isolated peripheral nerve. Anesth Analg 1993, 76:131-143.
264. Fulling PD, Peterfreund RA Alkalinization and precipitation characteristics of 0.2% ropivacaine. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2000, 25:518-521.
265. Peterfreund RA, Datta S, Ostheimer GW pH adjustment of local anesthetic solutions with sodium bicarbonate: laboratory evaluation of alkalinization and precipitation. Reg Anesth 1989, 14:265-270.
266. Suresh S, Voronov P Head and neck blocks in children: an anatomical and procedural review. Paediatr Anaesth 2006, 16:910-918.
267. Suresh S, Bellig G Regional anesthesia in a very low-birth-weight neonate for a neurosurgical procedure. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2004, 29:58-59.
268. Suresh S, Wagner AM Scalp excisions: getting "ahead" of pain. Pediatr Dermatol 2001, 18:74-76.
269. Loukas M, El-Sedfy A, Tubbs RS, et al. Identification of greater occipital nerve landmarks for the treatment of occipital neuralgia. Folia Morphol (Warsz) 2006, 65:337-342.
270. Suresh S, Barcelona SL, Young NM, et al. Does a preemptive block of the great auricular nerve improve postoperative analgesia in children undergoing tympanomastoid surgery?. Anesth Analg 2004, 98:330-333. table.
271. Suresh S, Voronov P, Curran J Infraorbital nerve block in children: a computerized tomographic measurement of the location of the infraorbital foramen. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2006, 31:211-214.
272. Bosenberg AT, Kimble FW Infraorbital nerve block in neonates for cleft lip repair: anatomical study and clinical application. Br J Anaesth 1995, 74:506-508.
273. Rajamani A, Kamat V, Rajavel VP, et al. A comparison of bilateral infraorbital nerve block with intravenous fentanyl for analgesia following cleft lip repair in children. Paediatr Anaesth 2007, 17:133-139.
274. Molliex S, Navez M, Baylot D, et al. Regional anaesthesia for outpatient nasal surgery. Br J Anaesth 1996, 76:151-153.
275. Higashizawa T, Koga Y Effect of infraorbital nerve block under general anesthesia on consumption of isoflurane and postoperative pain in endoscopic endonasal maxillary sinus surgery. J Anesth 2001, 15:136-138.
276. Cregg N, Conway F, Casey W Analgesia after otoplasty: regional nerve blockade vs local anaesthetic infiltration of the ear. Can J Anaesth 1996, 43:141-147.
277. Suresh S, Barcelona SL, Young NM, et al. Postoperative pain relief in children undergoing tympanomastoid surgery: is a regional block better than opioids?. Anesth Analg 2002, 94:859-862.
278. McKinney P Parotid fascia and face lifting. Plast Reconstr Surg 1985, 75:439-440.
279. Dickenson CM Thoracic trauma in children. Crit Care Nurs Clin North Am 1991, 3:423-432.
280. Kolvenbach H, Lauven PM, Schneider B, Kunath U Repetitive intercostal nerve block via catheter for postoperative pain relief after thoracotomy. Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1989, 37:273-276.
281. Kopacz DJ, Emanuelsson BM, Thompson GE, et al. Pharmacokinetics of ropivacaine and bupivacaine for bilateral intercostal blockade in healthy male volunteers. Anesthesiology 1994, 81:1139-1148.
282. Moore DC Intercostal nerve block for postoperative somatic pain following surgery of thorax and upper abdomen. Br J Anaesth 1975, 47(Suppl):284-286.
283. Splinter WM, Bass J, Komocar L Regional anaesthesia for hernia repair in children: local vs caudal anaesthesia. Can J Anaesth 1995, 42:197-200.
284. Casey WF, Rice LJ, Hannallah RS, et al. A comparison between bupivacaine instillation versus ilioinguinal/iliohypogastric nerve block for postoperative analgesia following inguinal herniorrhaphy in children. Anesthesiology 1990, 72:637-639.
285. Lipp AK, Woodcock J, Hensman B, Wilkinson K Leg weakness is a complication of ilioinguinal nerve block in children. Br J Anaesth 2004, 92:273-274.
286. Shivashanmugam T, Kundra P, Sudhakar S Iliac compartment block following ilioinguinal iliohypogastric nerve block. Paediatr Anaesth 2006, 16:1084-1086.
287. Willschke H, Marhofer P, Bosenberg A, et al. Ultrasonography for ilioinguinal/iliohypogastric nerve blocks in children. Br J Anaesth 2005, 95:226-230.
288. Amory C, Mariscal A, Guyot E, et al. Is ilioinguinal/iliohypogastric nerve block always totally safe in children?. Paediatr Anaesth 2003, 13:164-166.
289. Johr M, Berger TM Recent developments in paediatric regional anaesthesia. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol 2004, 17:211-215.
290. Chhibber AK, Perkins FM, Rabinowitz R, et al. Penile block timing for postoperative analgesia of hypospadias repair in children. J Urol 1997, 158:1156-1159.
291. Choi WY, Irwin MG, Hui TW, et al. EMLA cream versus dorsal penile nerve block for postcircumcision analgesia in children. Anesth Analg 2003, 96:396-399. table.
292. Ferguson S, Thomas V, Lewis I The rectus sheath block in paediatric anaesthesia: new indications for an old technique?. Paediatr Anaesth 1996, 6:463-466.
293. Courreges P, Poddevin F, Lecoutre D Para-umbilical block: a new concept for regional anaesthesia in children. Paediatr Anaesth 1997, 7:211-214.
294. Isaac LA, McEwen J, Hayes JA, Crawford MW A pilot study of the rectus sheath block for pain control after umbilical hernia repair. Paediatr Anaesth 2006, 16:406-409.
295. Willschke H, Bosenberg A, Marhofer P, et al. Ultrasonography-guided rectus sheath block in paediatric anaesthesia-a new approach to an old technique. Br J Anaesth 2006, 97:244-249.
296. Lonnqvist PA, Hildingsson U The caudal boundary of the thoracic paravertebral space: a study in human cadavers. Anaesthesia 1992, 47:1051-1052.
297. Lönnqvist PA, Hesser U Location of the paravertebral space in children and adolescents in relation to surface anatomy assessed by computed tomography. Paediatr Anaesth 1992, 2:285-289.
298. Lönnqvist PA, Hesser U Depth from the skin to the thoracic paravertebral space in infants and children. Paediatr Anaesth 1994, 4:99-100.
299. Naja ZM, Raf M, El RM, et al. Nerve stimulator-guided paravertebral blockade combined with sevoflurane sedation versus general anesthesia with systemic analgesia for postherniorrhaphy pain relief in children: a prospective randomized trial. Anesthesiology 2005, 103:600-605.
300. Lonnqvist PA Plasma concentrations of lignocaine after thoracic paravertebral blockade in infants and children. Anaesthesia 1993, 48:958-960.
301. Karmakar MK, Booker PD, Franks R, Pozzi M Continuous extrapleural paravertebral infusion of bupivacaine for post-thoracotomy analgesia in young infants. Br J Anaesth 1996, 76:811-815.
302. Cheung SL, Booker PD, Franks R, Pozzi M Serum concentrations of bupivacaine during prolonged continuous paravertebral infusion in young infants. Br J Anaesth 1997, 79:9-13.
303. Lonnqvist PA, MacKenzie J, Soni AK, Conacher ID Paravertebral blockade: failure rate and complications. Anaesthesia 1995, 50:813-815.
304. Naja ZM, Raf M, El-Rajab M, et al. A comparison of nerve stimulator guided paravertebral block and ilioinguinal nerve block for analgesia after inguinal herniorrhaphy in children. Anaesthesia 2006, 61:1064-1068.
305. Fisher WJ, Bingham RM, Hall R Axillary brachial plexus block for perioperative analgesia in 250 children. Paediatr Anaesth 1999, 9:435-438.
306. Cramer KE, Glasson S, Mencio G, Green NE Reduction of forearm fractures in children using axillary block anesthesia. J Orthop Trauma 1995, 9:407-410.
307. Kriwanek KL, Wan J, Beaty JH, Pershad J Axillary block for analgesia during manipulation of forearm fractures in the pediatric emergency department: a prospective randomized comparative trial. J Pediatr Orthop 2006, 26:737-740.
308. Ediale KR, Myung CR, Neuman GG Prolonged hemidiaphragmatic paralysis following interscalene brachial plexus block. J Clin Anesth 2004, 16:573-575.
309. Sala-Blanch X, Lazaro JR, Correa J, Gomez-Fernandez M Phrenic nerve block caused by interscalene brachial plexus block: effects of digital pressure and a low volume of local anesthetic. Reg Anesth Pain Med 1999, 24:231-235.
310. Tetzlaff JE, Yoon HJ, Dilger J, Brems J Subdural anesthesia as a complication of an interscalene brachial plexus block: case report. Reg Anesth 1994, 19:357-359.
311. Davis WJ, Lennon RL, Wedel DJ Brachial plexus anesthesia for outpatient surgical procedures on an upper extremity. Mayo Clin Proc 1991, 66:470-473.
312. Berde CB Toxicity of local anesthetics in infants and children. J Pediatr 1993, 122:S14-S20.
313. Wilson JL, Brown DL, Wong GY, et al. Infraclavicular brachial plexus block: parasagittal anatomy important to the coracoid technique. Anesth Analg 1998, 87:870-873.
314. Dalens B, Vanneuville G, Tanguy A A new parascalene approach to the brachial plexus in children: comparison with the supraclavicular approach. Anesth Analg 1987, 66:1264-1271.
315. Brill S, Middleton W, Brill G, Fisher A Bier's block; 100 years old and still going strong!. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2004, 48:117-122.
316. Constantine E, Steele DW, Eberson C, et al. The use of local anesthetic techniques for closed forearm fracture reduction in children: a survey of academic pediatric emergency departments. Pediatr Emerg Care 2007, 23:209-211.
317. Chong AK, Tan DM, Ooi BS, et al. Comparison of forearm and conventional Bier's blocks for manipulation and reduction of distal radius fractures. J Hand Surg (Eur Vol) 2007, 32:57-59.
318. Mohr B Safety and effectiveness of intravenous regional anesthesia (Bier block) for outpatient management of forearm trauma. CJEM 2006, 8:247-250.
319. Suresh S, Wheeler M, Patel A Case series: IV regional anesthesia with ketorolac and lidocaine: is it effective for the management of complex regional pain syndrome 1 in children and adolescents?. Anesth Analg 2003, 96:694-695.
320. Bosenberg AT, Raw R, Boezaart AP Surface mapping of peripheral nerves in children with a nerve stimulator. Paediatr Anaesth 2002, 12:398-403.
321. Wagner AM, Suresh S Peripheral nerve blocks for warts: taking the cry out of cryotherapy and laser. Pediatr Dermatol 1998, 15:238-241.
322. Dalens B, Tanguy A, Vanneuville G Sciatic nerve blocks in children: comparison of the posterior, anterior, and lateral approaches in 180 pediatric patients. Anesth Analg 1990, 70:131-137.
323. Sukhani R, Candido KD, Doty R, et al. Infragluteal-parabiceps sciatic nerve block: an evaluation of a novel approach using a single-injection technique. Anesth Analg 2003, 96:868-873. table.
324. McNicol LR Sciatic nerve block for children: sciatic nerve block by the anterior approach for postoperative pain relief. Anaesthesia 1985, 40:410-414.
325. McLeod DH, Wong DH, Claridge RJ, Merrick PM Lateral popliteal sciatic nerve block compared with subcutaneous infiltration for analgesia following foot surgery. Can J Anaesth 1994, 41:673-676.
326. DeVera HV, Furukawa KT, Matson MD, et al. Regional techniques as an adjunct to general anesthesia for pediatric extremity and spine surgery. J Pediatr Orthop 2006, 26:801-804.
327. Vas L Continuous sciatic block for leg and foot surgery in 160 children. Paediatr Anaesth 2005, 15:971-978.
328. Oberndorfer U, Marhofer P, Bosenberg A, et al. Ultrasonographic guidance for sciatic and femoral nerve blocks in children. Br J Anaesth 2007, 98:797-801.
329. van Geffen GJ, Scheuer M, Muller A, et al. Ultrasound-guided bilateral continuous sciatic nerve blocks with stimulating catheters for postoperative pain relief after bilateral lower limb amputations. Anaesthesia 2006, 61:1204-1207.
330. Stewart B, Tudur SC, Teebay L, et al. Emergency department use of a continuous femoral nerve block for pain relief for fractured femur in children. Emerg Med J 2007, 24:113-114.
331. Brown K Leg blocks in children. Paediatr Anaesth 1996, 6:245.
332. Tondare AS, Nadkarni AV Femoral nerve block for fractured shaft of femur. Can Anaesth Soc J 1982, 29:270-271.
333. McNicol LR Lower limb blocks for children: lateral cutaneous and femoral nerve blocks for postoperative pain relief in paediatric practice. Anaesthesia 1986, 41:27-31.
334. Maccani RM, Wedel DJ, Melton A, Gronert GA Femoral and lateral femoral cutaneous nerve block for muscle biopsies in children. Pediatr Anaesth 1995, 5:223-227.
335. Hurdle MF, Weingarten TN, Crisostomo RA, et al. Ultrasound-guided blockade of the lateral femoral cutaneous nerve: technical description and review of 10 cases. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2007, 88:1362-1364.
336. Edelson R, Stevens P Meralgia paresthetica in children. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1994, 76:993-999.
337. Dalens B, Vanneuville G, Tanguy A Comparison of the fascia iliaca compartment block with the 3-in-1 block in children. Anesth Analg 1989, 69:705-713.
338. Fisher P, Wilson SE, Brown M, DiTunno T Continuous infraclavicular brachial plexus block in a child. Paediatr Anaesth 2006, 16:884-886.
339. Ganesh A, Rose JB, Wells L, et al. Continuous peripheral nerve blockade for inpatient and outpatient postoperative analgesia in children. Anesth Analg 2007, 105:1234-1242.
340. Bonadio WA, Smith DS, Metrou M, Dewitz B Estimating lumbar-puncture depth in children. N Engl J Med 1988, 319:952-953.
341. Lau HP The distance from the skin to the epidural space in a Chinese patient population. Ma Tsui Hsueh Tsa Chi 1989, 27:261-264.