Performance-enhancing sports supplements: Role in critical care

Critical Care Medicine

Volumn 37, Issue SUPPL. 10, 2009, Pages

  Weitzel, Lindsay Rae B ^a   Sandoval, Paul A ^a   Mayles, W Jonathan ^a   Wischmeyer, Paul E ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Androgens; Arginine; Creatine; Glutamine; Growth hormone; HMB; IGF 1; Performance enhancement; Post icu weakness; Sports nutrients

Indexed keywords

3 HYDROXY 3 METHYLGLUTARIC ACID; ALANYLGLUTAMINE; ANABOLIC AGENT; ANDROGEN; ANDROSTANOLONE; ANDROSTENEDIOL; ANDROSTENEDIONE; ARGININE; BRANCHED CHAIN AMINO ACID; CREATININE; GLUTAMINE; HEAT SHOCK PROTEIN 70; HUMAN GROWTH HORMONE; INTERLEUKIN 6; LEUCINE; MAMMALIAN TARGET OF RAPAMYCIN; NANDROLONE DECANOATE; OXANDROLONE; PLACEBO; PRASTERONE; SOMATOMEDIN BINDING PROTEIN 1; SOMATOMEDIN BINDING PROTEIN 3; SOMATOMEDIN C; TESTOSTERONE; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA;

ABSENCE OF SIDE EFFECTS; ALANINE AMINOTRANSFERASE BLOOD LEVEL; ASPARTATE AMINOTRANSFERASE BLOOD LEVEL; ATHLETIC PERFORMANCE; BURN; CONFERENCE PAPER; CRITICALLY ILL PATIENT; CYTOKINE RELEASE; DRUG MECHANISM; HORMONE SUBSTITUTION; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; HYPERMETABOLISM; HYPOGONADISM; INTENSIVE CARE UNIT; LEAN BODY WEIGHT; LIPOLYSIS; LOW DRUG DOSE; MUSCLE ATROPHY; MUSCLE FUNCTION; MUSCLE STRENGTH; MUSCLE WEAKNESS; NITROGEN BALANCE; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROPHYLAXIS; PROTEIN METABOLISM; PROTEIN SYNTHESIS; SEPSIS; SIDE EFFECT; SODIUM RETENTION; SPORT; VIRILIZATION;

EID: 70350496145     PISSN: 00903493     EISSN: 15300293     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/CCM.0b013e3181b6f2e6     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (165)

1. Stevens RD, Dowdy DW, Michaels RK, et al: Neuromuscular dysfunction acquired in critical illness: A systematic review. Intensive Care Med 2007; 33(11):1876-1891
2. 2. Herridge MS, Cheung AM, Tansey CM, et al: One-year outcomes in survivors of the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 2003; 348:683-693 (Pubitemid 36237037)
3. Ali NA, O'Brien JM Jr, Hoffmann SP, et al: Acquired weakness, handgrip strength, and mortality in critically ill patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2008; 178:261-268
4. Bhasin S, Calof OM, Storer TW, et al: Drug insight: Testosterone and selective androgen receptor modulators as anabolic therapies for chronic illness and aging. Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab 2006; 2:146-159
5. Woolf PD: Hormonal responses to trauma. Crit Care Med 1992; 20:216-226
6. 6.FerrandoAA,Sheffield-MooreM,WolfSE,etal: Testosteroneadministrationinsevereburnsamelioratesmusclecatabolism. CritCareMed2001;29:1936-1942(Pubitemid32980405)
7. 7.LederBZ,LongcopeC,CatlinDH,etal: Oralandrostenedioneadministrationandserumtestosteroneconcentrationsinyungmen. JAMA2000;283:779-782(Pubitemid30084618)
8. 8.BroederCE,QuindryJ,BrittinghamK,etal:TheAndróProject: Physiologicalandhormonalinfluencesofandrostenedionesupplementationinmen35- 65yearsoldparticipatinginahigh-intensityresistancetrainingprogram. ArchInternMed2000;160:3093-3104(Pubitemid30823450)
9. King DS, Sharp RL, Vukovich MD, et al: Effect of oral androstenedione on serum testosterone and adaptations to resistance training in young men: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA 1999; 281:2020-2028
10. Earnest CP, Olson MA, Broeder CE, et al: In vivo 4-androstene-3,17-dione and 4-androstene-3 beta,17 beta-diol supplementation in young men. Eur J Appl Physiol 2000; 81:229-232
11. Brown GA, Vukovich MD, Sharp RL, et al: Effect of oral DHEA on serum testosterone and adaptations to resistance training in young men. J Appl Physiol 1999; 87: 2274-2283
12. Morales AJ, Haubrich RH, Hwang JY, et al: The effect of six months treatment with a 100 mg daily dose of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) on circulating sex steroids, body composition and muscle strength in age-advanced men and women. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1998; 49:421-432
13. Morales AJ, Nolan JJ, Nelson JC, et al: Effects of replacement dose of dehydroepiandrosterone in men and women of advancing age. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1994; 78: 1360-1367
14. 14.WallaceMB,LimJ,CutlerA,etal: Effectsofdehydroepiandrosteronevsandrostenedionesupplementationinmen. MedSciSportsExerc1999;31:1788-1792(Pubitemid30012895)
15. 15. Rasmussen BB, Volpi E, Gore DC, et al: Androstenedione does not stimulate muscle protein anabolism in young healthy men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2000; 85:55-59 (Pubitemid 32268789)
16. 16. Jasuja R, Ramaraj P, Mac RP, et al: Delta4-androstene-3,17-dione binds androgen receptor, promotes myogenesis in vitro, and increases serum testosterone levels, fat-free mass, and muscle strength in hypogonadal men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005; 90: 855-863 (Pubitemid 40279209)
17. Gervasio JM, Dickerson RN, Swearingen J, et al: Oxandrolone in trauma patients. Pharmacotherapy 2000; 20:1328-1334
18. Bulger EM, Jurkovich GJ, Farver CL, et al: Oxandrolone does not improve outcome of Ventilator dependent surgical patients. Ann Surg 2004; 240:472-478, discussion 478-480
19. Choudhry MA, Bland KI, Chaudry IH: Trauma and immune response-effect of gender differences. Injury 2007; 38: 1382-1391
20. Jeschke MG, Chinkes DL, Finnerty CC, et al: Pathophysiologic response to severe burn injury. Ann Surg 2008; 248:387-401
21. Klein GL, Herndon DN, Goodman WG, et al: Histomorphometric and biochemical characterization of bone following acute severe burns in children. Bone 1995; 17:455-460
22. Rennie MJ: Muscle protein turnover and the wasting due to injury and disease. Br Med Bull 1985; 41:257-264
23. Herndon DN, Nguyen TT, Wolfe RR, et al: Lipolysis in burned patients is stimulated by the beta 2-receptor for catecholamines. Arch Surg 1994; 129:1301-1304; discussion 1304-1305
24. Jeschke MG, Finnerty CC, Suman OE, et al: The effect of oxandrolone on the endocrinologic, inflammatory, and hypermetabolic responses during the acute phase postburn. Ann Surg 2007; 246:351-360; discussion 360-1352
25. 25. Wolf SE, Edelman LS, Kemalyan N, et al: Effects of oxandrolone on outcome measures in the severely burned: A multicenter prospective randomized double-blind trial. J Burn Care Res 2006; 27:131-139; discussion 140-1131 (Pubitemid 43970312)
26. 26.BergerJR,PallL,WinfieldD:EffectofanabolicsteroidsonHIV- relatedwastingmyopathy.SouthMedJ1993;86:865-866(Pubitemid23246371)
27. 27.GoldJ,HighHA,LiY,etal: Safetyandefficacyofnandrolonedecanoate fortreatmentofwastinginpatientswithHIVinfection.AIDS1996;10:745- 752(Pubitemid26172777)
28. Berger JR, Pall L, Hall CD, et al: Oxandrolone in AIDS-wasting myopathy. AIDS 1996; 10:1657-1662
29. 29. Strawford A, Barbieri T, Van Loan M, et al: Resistance exercise and supraphysiologic androgen therapy in eugonadal men with HIV-related weight loss: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA 1999; 281:1282-1290 (Pubitemid 29174479)
30. 30.StrawfordA,BarbieriT,NeeseR,etal: Effectsofnandrolonedecanoatetherapyin borderlinehypogonadalmenwithHIVassociatedweightloss. JAcquirImmuneDeneSyndrHumRetrovirol1999;20:137-146(Pubitemid29063711)
31. Sattler FR, Jaque SV, Schroeder ET, et al: Effects of pharmacological doses of nandrolone decanoate and progressive resistance training in immunodeficient patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1999; 84: 1268-1276
32. 32. Batterham MJ, Garsia R. A comparison of megestrol acetate, nandrolone decanoate and dietary counselling for HIV associated weight loss. Int J Androl 2001; 24:232-240 (Pubitemid 32675090)
33. Earthman CP, Reid PM, Harper IT, et al: Body cell mass repletion and improved quality of life in HIV-infected individuals receiving oxandrolone. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2002; 26:357-365
34. 34. Hengge UR, Stocks K, Wiehler H, et al: Double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled phase III trial of oxymetholone for the treatment of HIV wasting. AIDS 2003; 17:699-710 (Pubitemid 36521076)
35. Grunfeld C, Kotler DP, Dobs A, et al: Oxandrolone in the treatment of HIV-associated weight loss in men: A randomized, doubleblind, placebo-controlled study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2006; 41:304-314
36. Church JA: Oxandrolone treatment of childhood hereditary angioedema. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2004; 92:377-378
37. 37.StahnkeN,KellerE,LandyH: FavorablefinalheightoutcomeingirlswithUllrichTurnersyndrometreatedwithlow- dosegrowthhormonetogetherwithoxandrolone despitestartingtreatmentafter10yearsofage.JPediatrEndocrinolMetab2002;15: 129-138(Pubitemid34704786)
38. Taylor BE, Buchman TG: Is there a role for growth hormone therapy in refractory critical illness? Curr Opin Crit Care 2008; 14: 438-444
39. 39.GiustinaA,VeldhuisJD: Pathophysiologyoftheneuroregulationofgrowth hormonesecretioninexperimentalanimalsandthehuman.EndocrRev1998;19: 717-797(Pubitemid128506521)
40. 40. Mesotten D, Van den Berghe G: Changes within the GH/IGF-I/IGFBP axis in critical illness. Crit Care Clin 2006; 22:17-28, v (Pubitemid 43037107)
41. 41.Russell-JonesDL,WeissbergerAJ,BowesSB,etal: Theeffectsofgrowthhormoneonproteinmetabolism inadultgrowthhormonedeficientpatients.ClinEndocrinolOxO1993;38: 427-431(Pubitemid23105077)
42. Holt RI, Sonksen PH: Growth hormone, IGF-I and insulin and their abuse in sport. Br J Pharmacol 2008; 154:542-556
43. 43. Weekers F, Van Herck E, Coopmans W, et al: A novel in vivo rabbit model of hypercatabolic critical illness reveals a biphasic neuroendocrine stress response. Endocrinology 2002; 143:764-774 (Pubitemid 34164024)
44. Van den Berghe G: Novel insights into the neuroendocrinology of critical illness. Eur J Endocrinol 2000; 143:1-13
45. Van den Berghe G, de Zegher F, Bouillon R: Clinical review 95: Acute and prolonged critical illness as different neuroendocrine paradigms. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998; 83:1827-1834
46. Ross R, Miell J, Freeman E, et al: Critically ill patients have high basal growth hormone levels with attenuated oscillatory activity associated with low levels of insulin-like growth factor-I. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1991; 35:47-54
47. 47.BaxterRC,HawkerFH,ToC,etal:Thirtydaymonitoringofinsulin- likegrowthfactorsandtheirbindingproteinsinintensivecareunitpatients. GrowthHormIGFRes1998;8:455-463(Pubitemid29125310)
48. 48. Hermansson M, Wickelgren RB, Hammarqvist F, et al: Measurement of human growth hormone receptor messenger ribonucleic acid by a quantitative polymerase chain reactionbased assay: Demonstration of reduced expression after elective surgery. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1997; 82:421-428 (Pubitemid 27068605)
49. Timmins AC, Cotterill AM, Hughes SC, et al: Critical illness is associated with low circulating concentrations of insulin-like growth factors-I and -II, alterations in insulin-like growth factor binding proteins, and induction of an insulin-like growth factor binding protein 3 protease. Crit Care Med 1996; 24:1460-1466
50. 50. Van den Berghe G, de Zegher F, Lauwers P, et al: Growth hormone secretion in critical illness: Effect of dopamine. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1994; 79:1141-1146 (Pubitemid 24342262)
51. 51. Takala J, Ruokonen E, Webster NR, et al: Increased mortality associated with growth hormone treatment in critically ill adults. N Engl J Med 1999; 341:785-792 (Pubitemid 29420473)
52. Van den Berghe G: Growth hormone secretagogues in critical illness. Horm Res 1999; 51 (Suppl 3):21-28
53. 53. Demling R: Growth hormone therapy in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med 1999; 341:837-839 (Pubitemid 29420481)
54. 54. Jeevanandam M, Holaday NJ, Petersen SR: Adjuvant recombinant human growth hormone does not augment endogenous glucose production in total parenteral nutrition-fed multiple trauma patients. Metabolism 1996; 45:450-456 (Pubitemid 26115670)
55. Melarvie S, Jeevanandam M, Holaday NJ, et al: Pulsatile nature of growth hormone levels in critically ill trauma victims. Surgery 1995; 117:402-408
56. Petersen SR, Jeevanandam M, Holaday NJ: Adjuvant recombinant human growth hormone stimulates insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3 secretion in critically ill trauma patients. J Trauma 1995; 39: 295-300; discussion 300-302
57. Redelman D, Welniak LA, Taub D, et al: Neuroendocrine hormones such as growth hormone and prolactin are integral members of the immunological cytokine network. Cell Immunol 2008; 252:111-121
58. 58. Hammarqvist F, Sandgren A, Andersson K, et al: Growth hormone together with glutamine-containing total parenteral nutrition maintains muscle glutamine levels and results in a less negative nitrogen balance after surgical trauma. Surgery 2001; 129: 576-586 (Pubitemid 32374989)
59. Umpleby AM, Carroll PV, Russell-Jones DL, et al: Glutamine supplementation and GH/ IGF-I treatment in critically ill patients: effects on glutamine metabolism and protein balance. Nutrition 2002; 18:127-129
60. Carroll PV, Jackson NC, Russell-Jones DL, et al: Combined growth hormone/insulinlike growth factor I in addition to glutamine-supplemented total parenteral nutrition results in net protein anabolism in critical illness. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2004; 286:E151-E157
61. 61.ZhangMM,WuXT,ZhouY,etal:Shorttermapplicationoflow- dosegrowthhormoneinsurgicalpatients:Effectsonnitrogenbalanceandbloodglucose. WorldJGastroenterol2007;13:452-456(Pubitemid46178983)
62. 62. Duska F, Fric M, Waldauf P, et al: Frequent intravenous pulses of growth hormone together with glutamine supplementation in prolonged critical illness after multiple trauma: Effects on nitrogen balance, insulin resistance, and substrate oxidation. Crit Care Med 2008; 36:1707-1713 (Pubitemid 351242573)
63. 63.PittoniG,GallioiG,ZanelloM,etal:ActivityofGH/IGF- Iaxisintraumaandsepticpatientsduringartificialnutrition: Differentbehaviorpatterns?/EndocrinolInvest2002;25:214-223(Pubitemid34295875)
64. 64. Yarwood GD, Ross RJ, Medbak S, et al: Administration of human recombinant insulin-like growth factor-I in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 1997; 25:1352-1361 (Pubitemid 27347300)
65. 65.Paddon-JonesD,Sheffield-MooreM,ZhangXJ,etal: Aminoacidingestionimprovesmuscleproteinsynthesisintheyoungandelderly. AmJPhysiolEndocrinolMetab2004;286:E321-E328(Pubitemid38292680)
66. Rasmussen BB, Wolfe RR, Volpi E: Oral and intravenously administered amino acids produce similar effects on muscle protein synthesis in the elderly. J Nutr Health Aging 2002; 6:358-362
67. 67.VolpiE,FerrandoAA,YeckelCW,etal: Exogenousaminoacidsstimulatenetmuscleproteinsynthesisintheelderly./ ClinInvest1998;101:2000-2007(Pubitemid28226120)
68. 68.VolpiE,KobayashiH,Sheffield-MooreM,etal: Essentialaminoacidsareprimarilyresponsible fortheaminoacidstimulationofmuscleproteinanabolisminhealthyelderlyadults. AmJClinNutr2003;78:250-258(Pubitemid39655228)
69. 69.AnthonyJC,YoshizawaF,AnthonyTG,etal: Leucinestimulatestranslationinitiationin skeletalmuscleofpostabsorptiveratsviaarapamycin-sensitivepathway.JNutr2000;130: 2413-2419(Pubitemid30737852)
70. Anthony JC, Anthony TG, Kimball SR, et al: Orally administered leucine stimulates protein synthesis in skeletal muscle of postabsorptive rats in association with increased eIF4F formation. J Nutr 2000; 130:139-145
71. 71.FujitaS,VolpiE:Aminoacidsandmusclelosswithaging.JNutr2006;136(1Suppl): 277S-280S(Pubitemid43156524)
72. 72.GreiweJS,KwonG,McDanielML,etal: Leucineandinsulinactivatep70S6kinasethrough differentpathwaysinhumanskeletalmuscle.AmJPhysiolEndocrinolMetab2001;281: E466-E471(Pubitemid32880919)
73. 73. Liu Z, Jahn LA, Long W, et al: Branched chain amino acids activate messenger ribonucleic acid translation regulatory proteins in human skeletal muscle, and glucocorticoids blunt this action. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001; 86:2136-2143 (Pubitemid 32472931)
74. 74. Liu Z, Jahn LA, Wei L, et al: Amino acids stimulate translation initiation and protein synthesis through an Akt-independent pathway in human skeletal muscle. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002; 87:5553-5558 (Pubitemid 36034359)
75. 75.KatsanosCS,KobayashiH,Sheffield-MooreM,etal: Agingisassociatedwithdiminishedaccretion ofmuscleproteinsaftertheingestionofasmallbolusofessentialaminoacids. AmJClinNutr2005;82:1065-1073(Pubitemid43779766)
76. 76. Katsanos CS, Kobayashi H, Sheffield-Moore M, et al: A high proportion of leucine is required for optimal stimulation of the rate of muscle protein synthesis by essential amino acids in the elderly. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2006; 291:E381-E387 (Pubitemid 44035298)
77. 77. Paddon-Jones D, Sheffield-Moore M, Katsanos CS, et al: Differential stimulation of muscle protein synthesis in elderly humans following isocaloric ingestion of amino acids or whey protein. Exp Gerontol 2006; 41:215-219 (Pubitemid 43165694)
78. 78.DardevetD,SornetC,BayleG,etal: Postprandialstimulationofmuscleproteinsynthesisinoldratscanberestoredbyaleucine- supplementedmeal.JNutr2002;132:95-100(Pubitemid34042461)
79. 79.RieuI,SornetC,BayleG,etal: Leucinesupplementedmealfeedingfortendays beneficiallyaffectspostprandialmuscleproteinsynthesisinoldrats.JNutr2003;133: 1198-1205(Pubitemid36407149)
80. 80. Rieu I, Balage M, Sornet C, et al: Increased availability of leucine with leucine-rich whey proteins improves postprandial muscle protein synthesis in aging rats. Nutrition 2007; 23:323-331 (Pubitemid 46509562)
81. 81. Rieu I, Balage M, Sornet C, et al: Leucine supplementation improves muscle protein synthesis in elderly men independently of hyperaminoacidaemia. J Physiol 2006; 575: 305-315 (Pubitemid 44182713)
82. 82.ArnalMA,MosoniL,BoirieY,etal: Proteinpulsefeedingimprovesproteinretentioninelderlywomen.AmJClinNutr1999;69: 1202-1208(Pubitemid29252054)
83. Cuthbertson DJ, Babraj J, Smith K, et al: Anabolic signaling and protein synthesis in human skeletal muscle after dynamic shortening or lengthening exercise. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2006; 290:E731-E738
84. 84.BorsheimE,TiptonKD,WolfSE,etal: Essentialaminoacidsandmuscleproteinrecoveryfromresistanceexercise. AmJPhysiolEndocrinolMetab2002;283:E648-E657(Pubitemid35050802)
85. 85. Karlsson HK, Nilsson PA, Nilsson J, et al: Branched-chain amino acids increase p70S6k phosphorylation in human skeletal muscle after resistance exercise. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2004; 287:E1-E7 (Pubitemid 38856275)
86. Drummond MJ, Rasmussen BB: Leucineenriched nutrients and the regulation of mammalian target of rapamycin signalling and human skeletal muscle protein synthesis. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 2008; 11:222-226
87. Crozier SJ, Kimball SR, Emmert SW, et al: Oral leucine administration stimulates protein synthesis in rat skeletal muscle. J Nutr 2005; 135:376-382
88. 88. Garcia-de-Lorenzo A, Ortiz-Leyba C, Planas M, et al: Parenteral administration of different amounts of branch-chain amino acids in septic patients: Clinical and metabolic aspects. Crit Care Med 1997; 25:418-424 (Pubitemid 27152734)
89. Ferrando AA, Williams BD, Stuart CA, et al: Oral branched-chain amino acids decrease whole-body proteolysis. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 1995; 19:47-54
90. Fitts RH, Romatowski JG, Peters JR, et al: The deleterious effects of bed rest on human skeletal muscle fibers are exacerbated by hypercortisolemia and ameliorated by dietary supplementation. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2007; 293:C313-C320
91. Gleeson M: Dosing and efficacy of glutamine supplementation in human exercise and sport training. J Nutr 2008; 138: 2045S-2049S
92. 92. Bassini-Cameron A, Monteiro A, Gomes A, et al: Glutamine protects against increases in blood ammonia in football players in an exercise intensity-dependent way. Br J Sports Med 2008; 42:260-266 (Pubitemid 351547688)
93. Favano A, Santos-Silva PR, Nakano EY, et al: Peptide glutamine supplementation for tolerance of intermittent exercise in soccer players. Clinics (Sao Paolo) 2008; 63:27-32
94. 94.KrzywkowskiK,PetersenEW,OstrowskiK,etal: Effectofglutaminesupplementationonexercise-inducedchangesinlymphocytefunction. AmJPhysiolCellPhysiol2001;281:C1259-C1265(Pubitemid32948114)
95. Castell LM: Can glutamine modify the apparent immunodepression observed after prolonged, exhaustive exercise? Nutrition 2002; 18:371-375
96. Castell L: Glutamine supplementation in vitro and in vivo, in exercise and in immunodepression. Sports Med 2003; 33:323-345
97. Gleeson M, Nieman DC, Pedersen BK: Exercise, nutrition and immune function. J Sports Sci 2004; 22:115-125
98. Walsh NP, Blannin AK, Robson PJ, et al: Glutamine, exercise and immune function. Links and possible mechanisms. Sports Med 1998; 26:177-191
99. 99. Wischmeyer PE: Glutamine and heat shock protein expression. Nutrition 2002; 18: 225-228 (Pubitemid 34204132)
100. 100. Morrison AL, Dinges M, Singleton KD, et al: Glutamine's protection against cellular injury is dependent on heat shock factor-1. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2006; 290: C1625-C1632 (Pubitemid 43830803)
101. Wischmeyer PE: Glutamine: the first clinically relevant pharmacological regulator of heat shock protein expression? Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 2006; 9:201-206
102. 102.PelhamHR: Speculationsonthefunctionsofthemajorheatshockandglucoseregulatedproteins. Cell1986;46:959-961(Pubitemid17182721)
103. 103.WischmeyerPE,MuschMW,MadonnaMB,etal: Glutamineprotectsintestinalepithelialcells:RoleofinducibleHSP70. AmJPhysiol1997;272:G879-G884(Pubitemid27216538)
104. Ziegler TR, Ogden LG, Singleton KD, et al: Parenteral glutamine increases serum heat shock protein 70 in critically ill patients. Intensive Care Med 2005; 31:1079-1086
105. 105. Singleton KD, Wischmeyer PE: Oral glufamine enhances heat shock protein expression and improves survival following hyperthermia. Shock 2006; 25:295-299 (Pubitemid 43755956)
106. 106.WischmeyerPE,KahanaM,WolfsonR,etal: Glutamineinducesheatshockproteinandprotectsagainstendotoxinshockintherat. JApplPhysiol2001;90:2403-2410(Pubitemid32467436)
107. 107.WischmeyerPE,KahanaM,WolfsonR,etal:Glutaminereducescytokinerelease, organdamage,andmortalityinaratmodelofendotoxemia.Shock2001;16: 398-402(Pubitemid33598218)
108. 108. Wischmeyer PE, Riehm J, Singleton KD, et al: Glutamine attenuates tumor necrosis factor-alpha release and enhances heat shock protein 72 in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Nutrition 2003; 19:1-6 (Pubitemid 36044477)
109. 109.WischmeyerPE,VandenHoekTL,LiC,etal: Glutaminepreservescardiomyocyteviability andenhancesrecoveryofcontractilefunctionafterischemia-reperfusioninjury. JPENJParenterEnteralNutr2003;27:116-122(Pubitemid36268529)
110. Singleton KD, Beckey VE, Wischmeyer PE: Glutamine prevents activation of NFkappaB and stress kinase pathways, attenuates inflammatory cytokine release, and prevents acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) following sepsis. Shock 2005; 24:583-589
111. 111. Singleton KD, Wischmeyer PE: Glutamine's protection against sepsis and lung injury is dependent on heat shock protein 70 expression. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2007; 292:R1839-R1845 (Pubitemid 46708539)
112. 112. Griffiths RD, Jones C, Palmer TE: Sixmonth outcome of critically ill patients given glutamine-supplemented parenteral nutrition. Nutrition 1997; 13:295-302 (Pubitemid 27242168)
113. Goeters C, Wenn A, Mertes N, et al: Parenteral L-alanyl-L-glutamine improves 6-month outcome in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 2002; 30:2032-2037
114. Campbell BI, La Bounty PM, Roberts M: The ergogenic potential of arginine. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2004; 1:35-38
115. 115. Waitzberg DL, Saito H, Plank LD, et al: Postsurgical infections are reduced with specialized nutrition support. World J Surg 2006; 30:1592-1604 (Pubitemid 44421266)
116. 116. Bansal V, Ochoa JB: Arginine availability, arginase, and the immune response. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 2003; 6:223-228 (Pubitemid 40674527)
117. Popovic PJ, Zeh HJ 3rd, Ochoa JB: Arginine and immunity. J Nutr 2007; 137(6 Suppl 2): 1681S-1686S
118. Luiking YC, Deutz NE: Exogenous arginine in sepsis. Crit Care Med 2007; 35(9 Suppl): S557-S563
119. Morris SM Jr: Arginine: Beyond protein. Am J Clin Nutr 2006; 83:508S-512S
120. 120.HeylandDK,NovakF,DroverJW,etal: Shouldimmunonutritionbecomeroutineincriticallyillpatients? Asystematicreviewoftheevidence.JAMA2001;286:944-953(Pubitemid33010341)
121. Wilson GJ, Wilson JM, Manninen AH: Effects of beta-hydroxy-beta- methylbutyrate (HMB) on exercise performance and body composition across varying levels of age, sex, and training experience: A review. Nutr Metab (Lond) 2008; 5:1
122. Harper AE, Miller RH, Block KP: Branchedchain amino acid metabolism. Annu Rev Nutr 1984; 4:409-454
123. Van Koevering M, Nissen S: Oxidation of leucine and alpha-ketoisocaproate to betahydroxy-beta-methylbutyrate in vivo. Am J Physiol 1992; 262:E27-E31
124. 124.NissenS,SharpR,RayM,etal:Effectofleucinemetabolitebeta-hydroxy- betamethylbutyrateonmusclemetabolismduringresistance-exercisetraining. JApplPhysiol1996;81:2095-2104(Pubitemid26384538)
125. 125.PittlerMH,ErnstE:Dietarysupplementsforbody-weightreduction: Asystematicreview.AmJClinNutr2004;79:529-536(Pubitemid41103893)
126. Bachhawat BK, Robinson WG, Coon MJ: Enzymatic carboxylation of beta-hydroxyisovaleryl coenzyme A. J Biol Chem 1956; 219:539-550
127. 127.NissenS,SharpRL,PantonL,etal:Betahydroxy-beta-methylbutyrate(HMB) supplementationinhumansissafeandmaydecreasecardiovascularriskfactors. JNutr2000;130:1937-1945(Pubitemid30497524)
128. 128. Bastiaanse EM, Hold KM, Van der Laarse A: The effect of membrane cholesterol content on ion transport processes in plasma membranes. Cardiovasc Res 1997; 33:272-283 (Pubitemid 27072629)
129. 129.PiernoS,DeLucaA,TricaricoD,etal:PotentialriskofmyopathybyHMG- CoAreductaseinhibitors: Acomparisonofpravastatinandsimvastatin effectsonmembraneelectricalpropertiesofratskeletalmusclefibers. JPharmacolExpTher1995;275:1490-1496(Pubitemid26129941)
130. 130. Mutoh T, Kumano T, Nakagawa H, et al: Role of tyrosine phosphorylation of phospholipase C gammal in the signaling pathway of HMG-CoA reductase inhibitorinduced cell death of L6 myoblasts. FEBS Lett 1999; 446:91-94 (Pubitemid 29127256)
131. Smith HJ, Wyke SM, Tisdale MJ: Mechanism of the attenuation of proteolysisinducing factor stimulated protein degradation in muscle by beta-hydroxy-betamethylbutyrate. Cancer Res 2004; 64: 8731-8735
132. Whitehouse AS, Tisdale MJ: Downregulation of ubiquitin-dependent proteolysis by eicosapentaenoic acid in acute starvation. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2001; 285: 598-602
133. 133. Whitehouse AS, Khal J, Tisdale MJ: Induction of protein catabolism in myotubes by 15(S)-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid through increased expression of the ubiquitinproteasome pathway. Br J Cancer 2003; 89: 737-745 (Pubitemid 37076183)
134. 134.RileyDA,Ilyina-KakuevaEI,EllisS,etal:Skeletalmusclefiber,nerve, andbloodvesselbreakdowninspace-flownrats.FASEBJ1990;4:84-91(Pubitemid20043132)
135. Day MK, Allen DL, Mohajerani L, et al: Adaptations of human skeletal muscle fibers to spaceflight. J Gravit Physiol 1995; 2:P47-P50
136. 136.SmithHJ,MukerjiP,TisdaleMJ:Attenuationofproteasome- inducedproteolysisinskeletalmuscleby{beta}-hydroxy-{beta}methylbutyrateincancer- inducedmuscleloss.CancerRes2005;65:277-283(Pubitemid40070819)
137. 137. Bodine SC, Latres E, Baumhueter S, et al: Identification of ubiquitin ligases required for skeletal muscle atrophy. Science 2001; 294:1704-1708 (Pubitemid 33104839)
138. 138. Reid MB: Response of the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway to changes in muscle activity. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2005; 288:R1423-R1431 (Pubitemid 40720691)
139. 139. Sonna LA, Wenger CB, Flinn S, et al: Exertional heat injury and gene expression changes: A DNA microarray analysis study. J Appl Physiol 2004; 96:1943-1953 (Pubitemid 38580024)
140. 140. Thompson HS, Scordilis SP: Ubiquitin changes in human biceps muscle following exercise-induced damage. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1994; 204:1193-1198 (Pubitemid 24367178)
141. 141.LeckerSH,SolomonV,MitchWE,etal: Muscleproteinbreakdownandthecriticalroleoftheubiquitin- proteasomepathwayinnormalanddiseasestates.JNutr1999;129(1SSuppl): 227S-237S(Pubitemid29035981)
142. Baxter JH, Mukerji P, Voss AC, et al: Attenuating protein degradation and enhancing protein synthesis in skeletal muscle in stressed animal model systems: 2831: Board# 105 8:00 AM - 9:00 AM. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 2006; 38: S550-S551
143. Vukovich MD, Stubbs NB, Bohlken RM: Body composition in 70-year-old adults responds to dietary beta-hydroxy-beta-methylbutyrate similarly to that of young adults. J Nutr 2001; 131:2049-2052
144. 144. Flakoll P, Sharp R, Baier S, et al: Effect of beta-hydroxy-beta- methylbutyrate, arginine, and lysine supplementation on strength, functionality, body composition, and protein metabolism in elderly women. Nutrition 2004; 20:445-451 (Pubitemid 38501798)
145. 145. May PE, Barber A, D'Olimpio JT, et al: Reversal of cancer-related wasting using oral supplementation with a combination of beta-hydroxy-beta- methylbutyrate, arginine, and glutamine. Am J Surg 2002; 183: 471-479 (Pubitemid 34442515)
146. 146.ClarkRH,FelekeG,DinM,etal: Nutritionaltreatmentforacquiredimmunodeficiencyvirus- associatedwastingusingbetahydroxybeta-methylbutyrate,glutamine,andarginine: Arandomized,double-blind,placebo-controlledstudy.JPENJParenterEnteralNutr2000; 24:133-139(Pubitemid30686037)
147. Soares JMC, Póvoas S, Neuparth MJ, et al: The effects of beta-hydroxy-beta-methylbuturate (HMB) on muscle atrophy induced by immobilization. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 2001; 33:140
148. Rathmacher JA, Azchwieja JJ, Smith SR, et al: The effect of the leucine metabolite β-hydroxy-β-methylbutyrate on lean body mass and muscle strength during prolonged bedrest. FASEB J 1999; 13:A909
149. 149.HsiehLC,ChienSL,HuangMS,etal: Antiinflammatoryandanticataboliceffectsofshort-termbeta-hydroxy-beta- methylbutyratesupplementationonchronicob structivepulmonarydiseasepatientsinintensivecareunit.AsiaPacJClinNutr2006;15: 544-550(Pubitemid44905134)
150. 150.RathmacherJA,NissenS,PantonL,etal: Supplementationwithacombinationofbeta-hydroxy-beta-methylbutyrate(HMB),arginine, andglutamineissafeandcouldimprovehematologicalparameters. JPENJParenterEnteralNutr2004;28:65-75(Pubitemid38365370)
151. Kuhls DA, Rathmacher JA, Musngi MD, et al: Beta-hydroxy-beta- methylbutyrate supplementation in critically ill trauma patients. J Trauma 2007; 62:125-131; discussion 131-132
152. Kreider RB: Effects of creatine supplementation on performance and training adaptations. Mol Cell Biochem 2003; 244:89-94, 2003
153. Persky AM, Brazeau GA, Hochhaus G: Pharmacokinetics of the dietary supplement creatine. Clin Pharmacokinet 2003; 42: 557-574
154. 154. McMorris T, Mielcarz G, Harris RC, et al: Creatine supplementation and cognitive performance in elderly individuals. Neuropsychol Dev Cogn B Aging Neuropsychol Cogn 2007; 14:517-528 (Pubitemid 47379240)
155. 155. Sakellaris G, Kotsiou M, Tamiolaki M, et al: Prevention of complications related to traumatic brain injury in children and adolescents with creatine administration: An open label randomized pilot study. J Trauma 2006;
156. Hultman E, Soderlund K, Timmons JA, et al: Muscle creatine loading in men. J Appl Physiol 1996; 81:232-237
157. 157.WilliamsMH,BranchJD:Creatinesupplementationandexerciseperformance: Anupdate.JAmCollNutr1998;17:216-234(Pubitemid28265495)
158. Kraemer WJ, Volek JS: Creatine supplementation. Its role in human performance. Clin Sports Med 1999; 18:651-666
159. 159.JuhnMS,TarnopolskyM: Oralcreatinesupplementationandathleticperformance:Acriticalreview. ClinJSportMed1998;8:286-297(Pubitemid29022831)
160. Graham AS, Hatton RC: Creatine: A review of efficacy and safety. J Am Pharm Assoc (Wash) 1999; 39:803-810; quiz 875-877
161. Mujika I Padilla S: Creatine supplementation as an ergogenic aid for sports performance in highly trained athletes: A critical review. Int J Sports Med 1997; 18:491-496
162. Hespel P, Derave W: Ergogenic effects of creatine in sports and rehabilitation. Subcell Biochem 2007; 46:245-259
163. Arciero PJ, Hannibal NS 3rd, Nindl BC, et al: Comparison of creatine ingestion and resistance training on energy expenditure and limb blood flow. Metabolism 2001; 50: 1429-1434
164. 164.WangW,JobstMABellB,etal: Crsupplementationdecreasestyrosinephosphorylation oftheCreaTinskeletalmuscleduringsepsis.AmJPhysiolEndocrinolMetab2002;282: E1046-E1054(Pubitemid34654718)
165. 165. Taes YE, Speeckaert M, Bauwens E, et al: Effect of dietary creatine on skeletal muscle myosin heavy chain isoform expression in an animal model of uremia. Nephron Exp Nephrol 2004; 96:el03-e110 (Pubitemid 38586149)