Molecular phylogeny of unculturable Karyorelictea (Alveolata, Ciliophora)

Zoologica Scripta

Volumn 38, Issue 6, 2009, Pages 651-662

  Andreoli, Ilaria ^a   Mangini, Lara ^a   Ferrantini, Filippo ^a   Santangelo, Giovanni ^a   Verni, Franco ^a   Petroni, Giulio ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PISA   (Italy)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ALVEOLATA; CILIOPHORA; GELEIA; KARYORELICTEA; LOXODES; LOXODIDA; PROTOHETEROTRICHIDA; PROTOSTOMATIDA; REMANELLA; TRACHELOCERCIDAE;

EID: 69949100150     PISSN: 03003256     EISSN: 14636409     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1463-6409.2009.00395.x     Document Type: Article

References (94)

1. Amann, R. I., Ludwig, W. Schleifer, K. H. (1995). Phylogenetic identification and in situ detection of individual microbial cells without cultivation. Microbiological Reviews, 59, 143 169.
2. Baroin-Tourancheau, A., Delgado, P., Perasso, R. Adoutte, A. (1992). A broad molecular phylogeny of ciliates: identification of major evolutionary trends and radiations within the phylum. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 89, 9764 9768.
3. Baumgartner, M., Stetter, K. O. Foissner, W. (2002). Morphological, small subunit rRNA, and physiological characterization of Trimyema minutum (Kahl, 1931), an anaerobic ciliate from submarine hydrothermal vents growing from 28 °C to 52 °C. Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology, 49, 227 238.
4. Berney, C., Fahrni, J. Pawlowski, J. (2004). How many novel eukaryotic 'kingdoms'? Pitfalls and limitations of environmental DNA surveys. BMC Biology, 2, 13.
5. Bernhard, D., Leipe, D. D., Sogin, M. L. Schlegel, K. M. (1995). Phylogenetic relationships of the Nassulida within the phylum Ciliophora inferred from the complete small subunit rRNA gene sequences of Furgasonia blochmanni, Obertrumia georgiana, and Pseudomicrothorax dubius. Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology, 42, 126 131.
6. Brehm-Stecher, B. F. Johnson, E. A. (2004). Single-cell microbiology: tools, technologies, and applications. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews, 68, 538 559.
7. Buonanno, F., Saltalamacchia, P. Miyake, A. (2005). Defence function of pigmentocysts in the karyorelictid ciliate Loxodes striatus. European Journal of Protistology, 41, 151 158.
8. Carpenter, K. J. Keeling, P. J. (2007). Morphology and phylogenetic position of Eucomonympha imla (Parabasalia: Hypermastigida). Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology, 54, 325 332.
9. Chen, X. R., Song, W. B., Al-Rasheid, K. A. S., Warren, A., Long, H. G., Shao, C., Al-Farraj, S. A., Gong, J. Hu, X. Z. (2007). The morphology of three marine heterotrichous ciliates, Condylostentor auriculatus (Kahl, 1932) Jankowski, 1978, Condylostoma minutum Bullington, 1940 and C. spatiosum Ozaki & Yagiu in Yagiu, 1944 (Ciliophora: Heterotrichida). Acta Protozoologica, 46, 289 309.
10. Dawson, S. C. Pace, N. R. (2002). Novel kingdom-level eukaryotic diversity in anoxic environments. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 99, 8324 8329.
11. DeLong, E. F. (1992). Archaea in coastal marine environments. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 89, 5685 5689.
12. Díez, B., Pedrós-Alió, C. Massana, R. (2001). Study of genetic diversity of eukaryotic picoplankton in different oceanic regions by small-subunit rRNA gene cloning and sequencing. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 67, 2932 2941.
13. Dragesco, J. (1999b). Revision des Geléiides (Ciliophora, Karyorelictea). Stapfia, 66, 1 91.
14. Dragesco, J. (1999a). Contribution à la connaissance des Trachelocercia (Ciliophora, Karyorelictea): infraciliature, morphométrie. Annales Des Sciences Naturelles Zoologie, 20, 1 38.
15. Dragesco, J. (2002). Infraciliature de quinze especes de cilies mesopsammiques marins comprenant Trachelocerca stephani comb. nova, T. bodiani comb. nova, Tracheloraphis filiformis spec. nova, T. exilis spec. nova et Sathrophilus arenicolus spec. nova. Linzer Biologische Beiträge, 34, 1545 1626.
16. Duszynski, D. W. (1999). Revisiting the code: clarifying name-bearing types for photomicrographs of protozoa. Journal of Parasitology, 85, 769 770.
17. Dyal, P. L., Hope, S., Roberts, D. M. Embley, T. M. (1995). Use of the PCR and fluorescent probes to recover SSU rRNA gene sequences from single cells of the ciliate protozoon Spathidium. Molecular Ecology, 4, 499 503.
18. Edgcomb, V. P., Kysela, D. T., Teske, A., De Vera Gomez, A. Sogin, M. L. (2002). Benthic eukaryotic diversity in the Guaymas Basin hydrothermal vent environment. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 99, 7658 7662.
19. Felsenstein, J. (1978). Cases in which parsimony or compatibility methods will be positively misleading. Systematic Zoology, 27, 401 410.
20. Felsenstein, J. (1989). Phylip-Phylogeny Inference Package Version 3.2. Cladistics, 5, 164 166.
21. Fenchel, T. (1987). Ecology of Protozoa. The Biology of Free-Living Phagotrophic Protists. Madison, Wisconsin : Science Tech Publishers.
22. Finlay, B. J., Corliss, J. O., Esteban, G. Fenchel, T. (1996). Biodiversity at the microbial level: the number of free-living ciliates in the biosphere. Quarterly Review of Biology, 71, 221 237.
23. Floyd, R., Abebe, E., Papert, A. Blaxter, M. L. (2002). Molecular barcodes for soil nematode identification. Molecular Ecology, 11, 839 850.
24. Foissner, W. (1995). Kentrophoros (Ciliophora, Karyorelictea) has oral vestiges: a reinvestigation of K. fistulosus (Fauré-Fremiet, 1950) using protargol impregnation. Archiv für Protistenkunde, 146, 165 179.
25. Foissner, W. (1996c). Updating the trachelocercids (Ciliophora, Karyorelictea). II. Prototrachelocerca nov. gen. (Prototrachelocercidae nov. fam.), with a redescription of P. fasciolata (Sauerbrey, 1928) nov. comb. & P. caudata (Dragesco & Raikov, 1966) nov. comb. European Journal of Protistology, 32, 336 355.
26. Foissner, W. (1996b). A redescription of Remanella multinucleata (Kahl, 1933) nov. gen., nov. comb. (Ciliophora, Karyorelictea), emphasizing the infraciliature and extrusomes. European Journal of Protistology, 32, 234 250.
27. Foissner, W. (1996a). The infraciliature of Cryptopharynx setigerus Kahl, 1928 and Apocryptophalynx hippocampoides nov. gen., nov. spec. (Ciliophora, Karyorelictea), with an account on evolution in loxodid ciliates. Archiv für Protistenkunde, 146, 309 327.
28. Foissner, W. (1997). Updating the trachelocercids (Ciliophora, Karyorelictea). V. Redescription of Kovalevaia sulcata (Kovaleva, 1966) gen. n., comb. n. & Trachelocerca incaudata Kahl, 1933. Acta Protozoologica, 36, 197 219.
29. Foissner, W. (1998). The karyorelictids (Protozoa: Ciliophora), a unique and enigmatic assemblage of marine, interstitial ciliates: a review emphasizing ciliary patterns and evolution. In G.H. Coombs, K. Vickerman, M.A. Sleigh A. Warren (Eds) Evolutionary Relationships Among Protozoa (pp. 305 325). Dordrecht : Kluwer Academic Publishers.
30. Foissner, W. Al-Rasheid, K. A. S. (1999c). Apical feeding in the karyorelictids (Protozoa, Ciliophora) Sultanophrys arabica and Tracheloraphis sp. Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology, 46, 458 463.
31. Foissner, W. Al-Rasheid, K. A. S. (1999b). Ontogenesis in a trachelocercid ciliate (Ciliophora: Karyorelictea), Sultanophrys arabica, with an account of evolution at the base of the ciliate tree. Acta Protozoologica, 38, 273 290.
32. Foissner, W. Al-Rasheid, K. A. S. (1999a). Updating the trachelocercids (Ciliophora, Karyorelictea). VI. A detailed description of Sultanophrys arabica nov. gen., nov. spec. (Sultanophryidae nov. fam.). European Journal of Protistology, 35, 146 160.
33. Foissner, W. Dragesco, J. (1996b). Updating the trachelocercids (Ciliophora, Karyorelictea). III. Redefinition of the genera Trachelocerca Ehrenberg and Tracheloraphis Dragesco, and evolution in trachelocercid ciliates. Archiv für Protistenkunde, 147, 43 91.
34. Foissner, W. Dragesco, J. (1996a). Updating the trachelocercids (Ciliophora, Karyorelictea). I. A detailed description of the infraciliature of Trachelolophos gigas n. g., n. sp. & T. filum (Dragesco & Dragesco-Kerneis, 1986) n. comb. Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology, 43, 12 25.
35. Foissner, W. Wölfl, S. (1994). Revision of the genus Stentor Oken (Protozoa, Ciliophora) and description of S. araucanus nov. spec. from South American lakes. Journal of Plankton Research, 16, 255 289.
36. Fokin, S. I., Andreoli, I., Verni, F. Petroni, G. (2006). Apofrontonia dohrni sp. n. & the phylogenetic relationships within Peniculia (Protista, Ciliophora, Oligohymenophorea). Zoologica Scripta, 35, 289 300.
37. Fried, J., Ludwig, W., Psenner, R. Schleifer, K. H. (2002). Improvement of ciliate identification and quantification: a new protocol for fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) in combination with silver stain techniques. Systematic and Applied Microbiology, 25, 555 571.
38. Fröhlich, J. König, H. (2000). New techniques for isolation of single prokaryotic cells. FEMS Microbiology, Rev., 24, 567 572.
39. Fuhrman, J. A., McCallum, K. Davis, A. A. (1992). Novel major archaebacterial group from marine plankton. Nature, 356, 148 149.
40. Giovannoni, S. J., Britschgi, T. B., Moyer, C. L. Field, K. G. (1990). Genetic diversity in Sargasso Sea bacterioplankton. Nature, 345, 60 63.
41. Gong, J., Kim, S. J., Kim, S. Y., Min, G. S., Roberts, D. M., Warren, A. Choi, J. K. (2007a). Taxonomic redescriptions of two ciliates, Protogastrostyla pulchra n. g., n. comb. & Hemigastrostyla enigmatica (Ciliophora: Spirotrichea, Stichotrichia), with phylogenetic analyses based on 18S and 28S rRNA gene sequences. Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology, 54, 468 478.
42. Gong, Y. C., Yu, Y. H., Zhu, F. Y. Feng, W. S. (2007b). Molecular phylogeny of Stentor (Ciliophora: Heterotrichea) based on small subunit ribosomal RNA sequences. Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology, 54, 45 48.
43. Guindon, S. Gascuel, O. (2003). A simple, fast, and accurate algorithm to estimate large phylogenies by Maximum Likelihood. Systematic Biology, 52, 696 704.
44. Hammerschmidt, B., Schlegel, M., Lynn, D. H., Leipe, D. D., Sogin, M. L. Raikov, I. B. (1996). Insights into the evolution of the nuclear dualism in the ciliates revealed by phylogenetic analysis of rRNA sequences. Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology, 43, 225 230.
45. Hewitt, E. A., Muller, K. M., Cannone, J., Hogan, D. J., Gutell, R. Prescott, D. M. (2003). Phylogenetic relationships among 28 spirotrichous ciliates documented by rDNA. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 29, 258 267.
46. Hillis, D. M. Bull, J. J. (1993). An empirical test of bootstrapping as a method for assessing confidence in phylogenetic analysis. Systematic Biology, 42, 182 192.
47. Hirt, R. P., Dyal, P. L., Wilkinson, M., Finlay, B. J., Roberts, D. Embley, T. M. (1995). Phylogenetic relationships among karyorelictids and heterotrichs inferred from small subunit rRNA sequences: resolution at the base of the ciliate tree. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 4, 77 87.
48. Hufford, L., Mc Mahon, M. M., Sherwood, A. M., Reeves, G. Chase, M. W. (2003). The major clades of Loasaceae: phylogenetic analysis using the plastid matK and trnL-trnF regions. American Journal of Botany, 90, 1215 1228.
49. Hugenholtz, P. Huber, T. (2003). Chimeric 16S rDNA sequences of diverse origin are accumulating in the public databases. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology, 53, 289 293.
50. Kolodziej, K. Stoeck, T. (2007). Cellular identification of a novel uncultured marine stramenopile (MAST-12 clade) small-subunit rRNA gene sequence from a Norwegian estuary by use of fluorescence in situ hybridization-scanning electron microscopy. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 73, 2718 2726.
51. Kumar, Y., Westram, R., Behrens, S., Fuchs, B., Glockner, F. O., Amann, R., Meier, H. Ludwig, W. (2005). Graphical representation of ribosomal RNA probe accessibility data using ARB software package. BMC Bioinformatics, 6, 61.
52. Lasek-Nesselquist, E. Katz, L. A. (2001). Phylogenetic position of Sorogena stoianovitchae and relationships within the class Colpodea (Ciliophora) based on SSU rDNA sequences. Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology, 48, 604 607.
53. Leipe, D. D., Bernhard, D., Schlegel, M. Sogin, M. L. (1994). Evolution of 16S-like ribosomal RNA genes in the ciliophoran taxa Litostomatea and Phyllopharyngea. European Journal of Protistology, 30, 354 361.
54. López-García, P., Rodríguez-Valera, F., Pedrós-Alió, C. Moreira, D. (2001). Unexpected diversity of small eukaryotes in deep-sea Antarctic plankton. Nature, 409, 603 607.
55. Lucchesi, P. Santangelo, G. (2004). How often does conjugation in ciliates occur? Clues from a seven-year study on marine sandy shores. Aquatic Microbial Ecology, 36, 195 200.
56. Ludwig, W., Strunk, O., Klugbauer, S., Klugbauer, N., Weizenegger, M., Neumaier, J., Bachleitner, M. Schleifer, K. H. (1998). Bacterial phylogeny based on comparative sequence analysis. Electrophoresis, 19, 554 568.
57. Ludwig, W., Strunk, O., Westram, R., Richter, L., Meier, H., Kumar, Y., Buchner, A., Lai, T., Steppi, S., Jobb, G., Forster, W., Brettske, I., Gerber, S., Ginhart, A. W., Gross, O., Grumann, S., Hermann, S., Jost, R., Konig, A., Liss, T., Lussmann, R., May, M., Nonhoff, B., Reichel, B., Strehlow, R., Stamatakis, A., Stuckmann, N., Vilbig, A., Lenke, M., Ludwig, T., Bode, A. Schleifer, K. H. (2004). ARB: a software environment for sequence data. Nucleic Acids Research, 32, 1363 1371.
58. Lynn, D. H. (2003). Morphology or molecules: how do we identify the major lineages of ciliates (Phylum Ciliophora) ? European Journal of Protistology, 39, 356 364.
59. Lynn, D. H. (2008). The Ciliated Protozoa. Characterization, Classification, and Guide to the Literature, 3rd edn. New York : Springer.
60. Lynn, D. H. Strüder-Kypke, M. C. (2002). Phylogenetic position of Licnophora, Lechriopyla, and Schizocaryum, three unusual ciliates (phylum Ciliophora) endosymbiotic in echinoderms (phylum Echinodermata). Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology, 49, 460 468.
61. Lynn, D. H., Wright, A. D., Schlegel, M. Foissner, W. (1999). Phylogenetic relationships of orders within the class Colpodea (phylum Ciliophora) inferred from small subunit rRNA gene sequences. Journal of Molecular Evolution, 48, 605 614.
62. Massana, R., Guillou, L., Díez, B. Pedrós-Alió, C. (2002). Unveiling the organisms behind novel eukaryotic ribosomal DNA sequences from the ocean. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 68, 4554 4558.
63. Medlin, L., Elwood, H. J., Stickel, S. Sogin, M. L. (1988). The characterization of enzymatically amplified eukaryotic 16S-like rRNA-coding regions. Gene, 71, 491 499.
64. Miao, W., Simpson, A. G., Fu, C. Lobban, C. S. (2005). The giant zooxanthellae-bearing ciliate Maristentor dinoferus (Heterotrichea) is closely related to folliculinidae. Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology, 52, 11 16.
65. Miao, M., Song, W., Clamp, J. C., Al-Rasheid, K. A.S., Al-Khedhairy, A. A. Al-Arifi, S. (2009). Further consideration of the phylogeny of some "traditional" Heterotrichs (Protista, Ciliophora) of uncertain affinities, based on new sequences of the small subunit rRNA gene. Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology. In press, DOI
66. Modeo, L., Petroni, G., Rosati, G. Montagnes, D. J. S. (2003). A multidisciplinary approach to describe protists: Redescriptions of Novistrombidium testaceum Anigstein 1914 and Strombidium inclinatum Montagnes, Taylor, and Lynn 1990 (Ciliophora, Oligotrichia). Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology, 50, 175 189.
67. Modeo, L., Rosati, G., Andreoli, I., Gabrielli, S., Verni, F. Petroni, G. (2006). Molecular systematics and ultrastructural characterization of a forgotten species: Chattonidium setense (Ciliophora, Heterotrichea). Proceedings of the Japan Academy Series B-Physical and Biological Sciences, 82, 359 374.
68. Moon-van der Staay, S. Y., De Wachter, R. Vaulot, D. (2001). Oceanic 18S rDNA sequences from picoplankton reveal unsuspected eukaryotic diversity. Nature, 409, 607 610.
69. Neefs, J. M., Van de Peer, Y., De Rijk, P., Chapelle, S. De Wachter, R. (1993). Compilation of small ribosomal subunit RNA structures. Nucleic Acids Research, 21, 3025 3049.
70. Petroni, G., Dini, F., Verni, F. Rosati, G. (2002). A molecular approach to the tangled intrageneric relationships underlying phylogeny in Euplotes (Ciliophora, Spirotrichea). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 22, 118 130.
71. Posada, D. Crandall, K. A. (1998). Modeltest: testing the model of DNA substitution. Bioinformatics, 14, 817 818.
72. Raikov, I. B. (1985). Primitive never-dividing macronuclei of some lower ciliates. International Review of Cytology, 95, 267 325.
73. Riley, J. L. Katz, L. A. (2001). Widespread distribution of extensive chromosomal fragmentation in ciliates. Molecular Biology and Evolution, 18, 1372 1377.
74. Rosati, G., Modeo, L., Melai, M., Petroni, G. Verni, F. (2004). A multidisciplinary approach to describe protists: a morphological, ultrastructural, and molecular study on Peritromus kahli Villeneuve-Brachon, 1940 (Ciliophora, Heterotrichea). Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology, 51, 49 59.
75. Saitou, N. Nei, M. (1987). The neighbor-joining method: a new method for reconstructing phylogenetic trees. Molecular Biology and Evolution, 4, 406 425.
76. Santangelo, G., Bongiorni, L. Pignataro, L. (2000). Abundance of thraustochytrids and ciliated protozoans in a Mediterranean sandy shore determined by an improved, direct method. Aquatic Microbial Ecology, 23, 55 61.
77. Santangelo, G. Lucchesi, P. (1995). Spatial distribution pattern of ciliated protozoa in a Mediterranean interstitial environment. Aquatic Microbial Ecology, 9, 47 54.
78. Schmidt, S. L., Foissner, W., Schlegel, M. Bernard, D. (2007a). Molecular phylogeny of the Heterotrichea (Ciliophora, Postciliodesmatophora) based on small subunit rRNA gene sequences. The Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology, 54, 358 363.
79. Schmidt, S. L., Treuner, T., Schlegel, M. Bernhard, D. (2007b). Multiplex PCR approach for species detection and differentiation within the genus Spirostomum (Ciliophora, Heterotrichea). Protist, 158, 139 145.
80. Schwarz, M. V. J., Zuendorf, A. Stoeck, T. (2007). Morphology, ultrastructure, molecular phylogeny, and autecology of Euplotes elegans Kahl, 1932 (Hypotrichida; Euplotidae) isolated from the anoxic Mariager Fjord, Denmark. The Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology, 54, 125 136.
81. Shimeta, J., Gast, R. J. Rose, J. M. (2007). Community structure of marine sedimentary protists in relation to flow and grain size. Aquatic Microbial Ecology, 48, 91 104.
82. Shimodaira, H. Hasegawa, M. (1999). Multiple comparisons of log-likelihoods with applications to phylogenetic inference. Molecular Biology and Evolution, 16, 1114 1116.
83. Shin, M. K., Hwang, U. W., Kim, W., Wright, A. D. G., Krawczyk, C. M. Lynn, D. H. (2000). Phylogenetic position of the ciliates Phacodinium (Order Phacodiniida) and Protocruzia (Subclass Protocruziidia) and systematics of the spirotrich ciliates examined by small subunit ribosomal RNA gene sequences. European Journal of Protistology, 36, 293 302.
84. Stechmann, A., Schlegel, M. Lynn, D. H. (1998). Phylogenetic relationships between prostome and colpodean ciliates tested by small subunit rRNA sequences. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 9, 48 54.
85. Stoeck, T., Fowle, W. H. Epstein, S. S. (2003). Methodology of protistan discovery: from rRNA detection to quality scanning electron microscope images. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 69, 6856 6863.
86. Strimmer, K. von Haeseler, A. (1996). Quartet puzzling: a quartet maximum-likelihood method for reconstructing tree topologies. Molecular Biology and Evolution, 13, 964 969.
87. Strüder-Kypke, M. C., Kornilova, O. A. Lynn, D. H. (2007). Phylogeny of trichostome ciliates (Ciliophora, Litostomatea) endosymbiotic in the Yakut horse (Equus caballus). European Journal of Protistology, 43, 319 328.
88. Strüder-Kypke, M. C., Wright, A. D., Fokin, S. I. Lynn, D. H. (2000). Phylogenetic relationships of the subclass Peniculia (Oligohymenophorea, Ciliophora) inferred from small subunit rRNA gene sequences. Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology, 47, 419 429.
89. Swofford, D. L. (2002). paup*. Phylogenetic Analysis Using Parsimony (*and Other Methods), Version 4. Sunderland, Massachusetts : Sinauer Associates.
90. Tamura, K. Nei, M. (1993). Estimation of the number of nucleotide substitutions in the control region of mitochondrial DNA in humans and chimpanzees. Molecular Biology and Evolution, 10, 512 526.
91. Wang, G. C. Y. Wang, Y. (1997). Frequency of formation of chimeric molecules is a consequence of PCR coamplification of 16S rRNA genes from mixed bacterial genomes. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 63, 4645 4650.
92. Wright, A. D. G. Lynn, D. H. (1997). Monophyly of the trichostome ciliates (Phylum Ciliophora: Class Litostomatea) tested using new 18S rRNA sequences from the vestibuliferids, Isotricha intestinalis and Dasytricha ruminantium, and the haptorian, Didinium nasutum. European Journal of Protistology, 33, 305 315.
93. Wuyts, J., De Rijk, P., Van de Peer, Y., Pison, G., Rousseeuw, P. De Wachter, R. (2000). Comparative analysis of more than 3000 sequences reveals the existence of two pseudoknots in area V4 of eukaryotic small subunit ribosomal RNA. Nucleic Acids Research, 28, 4698 4708.
94. Yuasa, T., Takahashi, O., Dolven, J. K., Mayama, S., Matsuoka, A., Honda, D. Bjørklund, K. R. (2006). Phylogenetic position of the small solitary phaeodarians (Radiolaria) based on 18S rDNA sequences by single cell PCR analysis. Marine Micropaleontology, 59, 104 114.