Research applications of magnetic resonance spectroscopy to investigate psychiatric disorders

Topics in Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Volumn 19, Issue 2, 2008, Pages 81-96

  Dager, Stephen R ^a   Corrigan, Neva M ^a   Richards, Todd L ^a   Posse, Stefan ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF NEW MEXICO SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Autism; Bipolar disorder; Brain chemistry; Brain imaging; Major depression; MRS; Panic disorder; Psychiatric disorders; Schizophrenia

Indexed keywords

ATYPICAL ANTIPSYCHOTIC AGENT; HYDROGEN; LITHIUM; LITHIUM CARBONATE; NEUROLEPTIC AGENT; VALPROIC ACID;

ANXIETY DISORDER; ARTICLE; AUTISM; BIPOLAR DISORDER; HUMAN; MAJOR DEPRESSION; MENTAL DISEASE; MOOD DISORDER; NEUROIMAGING; NONHUMAN; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE SPECTROSCOPY; PANIC; PRIORITY JOURNAL; SCHIZOPHRENIA;

BIOLOGICAL MARKERS; BIOMEDICAL RESEARCH; BRAIN; HUMANS; MAGNETIC RESONANCE SPECTROSCOPY; MENTAL DISORDERS; PHYSICIAN'S PRACTICE PATTERNS; PSYCHIATRY;

EID: 67649817078     PISSN: 08993459     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/RMR.0b013e318181e0be     Document Type: Article

References (142)

1. Andreasen NC. Brain imaging: applications in psychiatry. Science. 1988;239:1381-1388.
2. Ross B, Michaelis T. Clinical applications of magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Magn Reson Med. 1994;10:191-247.
3. Rapaport S. Blood-Brain Barrier in Physiology and Medicine. New York, NY: Raven Press; 1976.
4. Lauterbur PC. Image formation by induced local interactions: examples employing nuclear magnetic resonance. Nature. 1973;242:190-191.
5. Mansfield P, Grannell PK. NMR diffraction in solids? J Phys C Solid State Phys. 1973;6:422-426.
6. Gadian DF. Nuclear Magnentic Resonance and Its Applications to Living Systems. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 1982.
7. Cohen SM. Physiological NMR spectroscopy: from isolated cells to man. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1987;508:1-537.
8. Friedman SD, Mathis CM, Hayes C, et al. Brain pH response to hyperventilation in panic disorder: preliminary evidence for altered acid-base regulation. Am J Psychiatry. 2006;163:710-715.
9. Renshaw PF, Wicklund S. In vivo measurement of lithium in humans by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Biol Psychiatry. 1988;23:465-475.
10. Strauss WL, Unis AS, Cowan C, et al. 19F measurement of brain fluvoxamine and fluoxetine in pediatric patients treated for pervasive developmental disorders. Am J Psychiatry. 2002;159:755-760.
11. Dager SR, Layton ME, Strauss W, et al. Human brain metabolic response to caffeine and the effects of tolerance. Am J Psychiatry. 1999;156:229-237.
12. Kreis R, Ernst T, Ross BD. Development of the human brain: in vivo quantification of metabolite and water content with proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Magn Reson Med. 1993;30:424-437.
13. Schubert F, Gallinat J, Seifert F, et al. Glutamate concentrations in human brain using single voxel proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy at 3 Tesla. Neuroimage. 2004;21:1762-1771.
14. Pfeuffer J, Tkác I, Provencher SW, et al. Toward an in vivo neurochemical profile: quantification of 18 metabolites in short-echo-time (1)H NMR spectra of the rat brain. J Magn Reson. 1999;141:104-120.
15. Li Y, Chen AP, Crane JC, et al. Three-dimensional J-resolved H-1 magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging of volunteers and patients with brain tumors at 3T. Magn Reson Med. 2007;58:886-892.
16. Shen J, Rothman DL, Brown P. In vivo GABA editing using a novel doubly selective multiple quantum filter. Magn Reson Med. 2002;47:447-454.
17. Tallan HH, Moore S, Stein WH. N-Acetyl-L-aspartic acid in brain. J Biol Chem. 1956;219:257-264.
18. Friedman SD, Brooks WM, Jung RE, et al. Quantitative proton MRS predicts outcome after traumatic brain injury. Neurology. 1999; 52:1384-1391.
19. 1H NMR spectroscopic studies of brain. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 1989;13:23-31.
20. Coyle JT, Schwarcz R. Mind glue: implications of glial cell biology for psychiatry. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2000;57:90-93.
21. Baslow MH. Functions of N-acetyl-L-aspate and N-acetyl-L- aspartylglutamate in the vertebrate brain: role in glial cell-specific signaling. J Neurochem. 2000;75:453-459.
22. Neale JH, Bzdega T, Wroblewska B. N-Acetylaspartylglutamate: the most abundant peptide neurotransmitter in the mammalian central nervous system. J Neurochem. 2000;75:443-452.
23. van der Knaap MS, van der Grond J, van Rijen PC, et al. Age-dependent changes in localized proton and phosphorus MR spectroscopy of the brain. Radiology. 1990;176:509-515.
24. 1H-spectroscopy in developing human brain. Pediatr Res. 1991;30:574-578.
25. Moore CM, Breeze JL, Kukes TJ, et al. Effects of myo-inositol ingestion on human brain myo-inositol levels: a proton magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging study. Biol Psychiatry. 1999;45:1197-1202.
26. Tsacopoulos M, Magistretti PJ. Metabolic coupling between glia and neurons. J Neurosci. 1996;16:877-885.
27. Dager SR, Strauss WL, Marro KI, et al. Proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy investigation of hyperventilation in subjects with panic disorder and comparison subjects. Am J Psychiatry. 1995;152:666Y672.
28. Dager SR, Friedman SD, Parow A, et al. Brain metabolic alterations in medication-free patients with bipolar disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2004;61:450-458.
29. Petroff OA, Errante LD, Rothman DL, et al. Glutamate-glutamine cycling in the epileptic human hippocampus. Epilepsia. 2002; 43:703-710.
30. Provencher SW. Estimation of metabolite concentrations from localized in vivo proton NMR spectra. Magn Reson Med. 1993;30:672-679.
31. Provencher S. LCModel. Available at: http://s-provencher.com/pages/ lcmodel.shtml. Accessed July 4, 2008.
32. http://sermn02.uab.cat/mrui/.
33. 1H human brain spectra by LCModel and AMARES. Magn Reson Med. 2004;51:904-912.
34. Friedman SD, Shaw DWW, Artru AA, et al. Regional brain chemical alterations in young children with autism spectrum disorder. Neurology. 2003;60:100-107.
35. Dager SR, Marro KI, Richards TL, et al. Localized magnetic resonance spectroscopy measurement of brain lactate during intravenous 0.5 M sodium L-lactate infusion in healthy volunteers. Life Sci. 1992;51: 973-985.
36. Otazo R, Mueller B, Ugurbil K, et al. Signal-to-noise ratio and spectral linewidth improvements between 1.5 and 7 Tesla in proton echo-planar spectroscopic imaging. Magn Reson Med. 2006;56:1200-1210.
37. Posse S, Dager SR, Richards TL, et al. In vivo measurement of regional brain metabolic response to hyperventilation using functional proton echo-planar spectroscopic imaging (PEPSI). Magn Reson Med. 1997;37:858-865.
38. Lin FH, Tsai SY, Otazo R, et al. Sensitivity-encoded (SENSE) proton echo-planar spectroscopic imaging (PEPSI) in the human brain. Magn Reson Med. 2007;57:249-257.
39. Posse S, Otazo R, Caprihan A, et al. Proton echo planar spectroscopic imaging of J-coupled resonances in human brain at 3 and 4 Tesla. Magn Reson Med. 2007;58:236-244.
40. Posse S, Schuknecht B, Smith ME, et al. Short echo time proton MR spectroscopic imaging. J Comput Assist Tomogr. 1993;17:1-14.
41. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1994.
42. Lock T, Abou-Saleh MT, Edwards RHT. Psychiatry and the new magnetic resonance era. Br J Psychiatry. 1990;157:38-55.
43. Dager SR, Steen RG. Applications of magnetic resonance spectroscopy to the investigation of neuropsychiatric disorders. Neuropsychopharmacology. 1992;6:249-266.
44. Lyoo IK, Renshaw PF. Magnetic resonance spectroscopy: current and future applications in psychiatric research. Biol Psychiatry. 2002;51: 195-207.
45. DiCicco-Bloom E, Lord C, Zwaigenbaum L, et al. The developmental neurobiology of autism spectrum disorder. J Neurosci. 2006;26: 6897-6906.
46. Dawson G, Munson J, Estes A, et al. Neurocognitive function and joint attention ability in young children with autism spectrum disorder versus developmental delay. Child Dev. 2002;73:345-358.
47. Chakrabarti S, Fombonne E. Pervasive developmental disorders in preschool children: confirmation of high prevalence. Am J Psychiatry. 2005;162:1133-1141.
48. Volkmar FR, Nelson DS. Seizure disorders in autism. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psych. 1990;29:127-129.
49. Giovanardi R, Posar A, Parmeggiani A. Epilepsy in adolescents and young adults with autistic disorder. Brain Dev. 2000;22:102-168.
50. Courchesne E, Karns CM, Davis HR, et al. Unusual brain growth patterns in early life in patients with autistic disorder: an MRI study. Neurology. 2001;57:245-254.
51. Sparks BF, Friedman SD, Shaw DW, et al. Brain structural abnormalities in young children with autism spectrum disorder. Neurology. 2002;59:184-192.
52. Hazlett HC, Poe M, Gerig G, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging and head circumference study of brain size in autism: birth through age 2 years. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2005;62:1366-1376.
53. Friedman SD, Shaw DW, Artru AA, et al. Gray and white matter brain chemistry in young children with autism. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2006;63:786-794.
54. DeVito TJ, Drost DJ, Neufeld RW, et al. Evidence for cortical dysfunction in autism: a proton magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging study. Biol Psychiatry. 2007;61:465-473.
55. Mukaetova-Ladinska EB, Arnold H, Jaros E, et al. Depletion of MAP2 expression and laminar cytoarchitectonic changes in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in adult autistic individuals. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol. 2004;30:615-623.
56. Bailey A, Luthert P, Dean A, et al. A clinicopathological study of autism. Brain. 1998;121(Pt 5):889-905.
57. Casanova MF, Buxhoeveden DP, Switala AE, et al. Minicolumnar pathology in autism. Neurology. 2002;58:428-432.
58. Vargas DL, Nascimbene C, Krishnan C, et al. Neuroglial activation and neuroinflammation in the brain of patients with autism. Ann Neurol. 2005;57:67-81.
59. Carlsson ML. Hypothesis: is infantile autism a hypoglutamatergic disorder? Relevance of glutamate serotonin interactions for pharmacotherapy. J Neural Transm. 1998;105:525-535.
60. Belmonte MK, Cook EH Jr, Anderson GM, et al. Autism as a disorder of neural information processing: directions for research and targets for therapy. Mol Psychiatry. 2004;9:646-663.
61. Polleux F, Lauder JM. Toward a developmental neurobiology of autism. Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev. 2004;10:303-317.
62. Page LA, Daly E, Schmitz N, et al. In vivo 1H-magnetic resonance spectroscopy study of amygdala-hippocampal and parietal regions in autism. Am J Psychiatry. 2006;163:2189-2192.
63. During MJ, Spencer DD. Extracellular hippocampal glutamate and spontaneous seizure in the conscious human brain. Lancet. 1993; 341:1607-1610.
64. Maragakis NJ, Rothstein JD. Glutamate transporters in neurologic disease. Arch Neurol. 2001;58:365-370.
65. Niederhofer H. Glutamate antagonists seem to be slightly effective in psychopharmacologic treatment of autism. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2007;27:317-318.
66. Volz HR, Riehemann S, Maurer I, et al. Reduced phosphodiesters and high-energy phosphates in the frontal lobe of schizophrenic patients: a (31)P chemical shift spectroscopic-imaging study. Biol Psychiatry. 2000;47:954-961.
67. Jensen JE, Miller J, Williamson PC, et al. Focal changes in brain energy and phospholipid metabolism in first-episode schizophrenia: 31P-MRS chemical shift imaging study at 4 Tesla. Br J Psychiatry. 2004;184:409-415.
68. Jensen JE, Miller J, Williamson PC, et al. Grey and white matter differences in brain energy metabolism in first episode schizophrenia: 31P-MRS chemical shift imaging at 4 Tesla. Psychiatry Res. 2006;146:127-135.
69. Smesny S, Rosburg T, Nenadic I, et al. Metabolic mapping using 2D 31P-MR spectroscopy reveals frontal and thalamic metabolic abnormalities in schizophrenia. Neuroimage. 2007;35:729-737.
70. Abbott C, Bustillo J. What have we learned from proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy about schizophrenia? A critical update. Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2006;19:135-139.
71. Arnold SE, Hyman BT, Van Hoesen GW, et al. Some cytoarchitectural abnormalities of the entorhinal cortex in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1991;48:625-632.
72. Selemon LD, Rajkowska G, Goldman-Rakic PS. Abnormally high neuronal density in the schizophrenic cortex. A morphometric analysis of prefrontal area 9 and occipital area 17. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1995; 52:805-820.
73. Thompson PM, Vidal C, Giedd JN, et al. Mapping adolescent brain change reveals dynamic wave of accelerated gray matter loss in very early-onset schizophrenia. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2001;98: 11650-11655.
74. Friedman L, Findling RL, Kenny JT, et al. An MRI study of adolescent patients with either schizophrenia or bipolar disorder as compared to healthy control subjects. Biol Psychiatry. 1999;46:78-88.
75. Weinberger DR, Berman KF. Prefrontal function in schizophrenia: confounds and controversies. Philosophical transactions of the royal society of london B. Biol Sci. 1996;351:1495-1503.
76. Yurgelun-Todd DA, Waternaux CM, Cohen BM, et al. Functional magnetic resonance imaging of schizophrenic patients and comparison subjects during word production. Am J Psychiatry. 1996;153:200-205.
77. Steen RG, Hamer RM, Lieberman JA. Measurement of brain metabolites by 1H magnetic resonance spectroscopy in patients with schizophrenia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2005;30:1949-1962.
78. Tang CY, Friedman J, Shungu D, et al. Correlations between diffusion tensor imaging (dti) and magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H MRS) in schizophrenic patients and normal controls. BMC Psychiatry. 2007;19:7-25.
79. 1H spectroscopy study. Schizophr Res. 2007;93:23-32.
80. Fannon D, Simmons A, Tennakoon L, et al. Selective deficit of hippocampal N-acetylaspartate in antipsychotic-naive patients with schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry. 2003;54:587-598.
81. Bertolino A, Callicott JH, Mattay VS, et al. The effect of treatment with antipsychotic drugs on brain N-acetylaspartate measures in patients with schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry. 2001;49:39-46.
82. Braus DF, Ende G, Weber-Fahr W, et al. Favorable effect on neuronal viability in the anterior cingulate gyrus due to long-term treatment with atypical antipsychotics: an MRSI study. Pharmacopsychiatry. 2001;34:251-253.
83. Braus DF, Ende G, Weber-Fahre W, et al. Functioning and neuronal viability of the anterior cingulate neurons following antipsychotic treatment: MR-spectroscopic imaging in chronic schizophrenia. Eur Neuropsychopharm. 2002;12:145-152.
84. Lindsley CW, Shipe WD, Wolkenberg SE, et al. Progress towards validating the NMDA receptor hypofunction hypothesis of schizophrenia. Curr Top Med Chem. 2006;6:771-785.
85. Olney JW, Newcomer JW, Farber NB. NMDA receptor hypofunction model of schizophrenia. J Psychiatr Res. 1999;33:523-533.
86. Moghaddam B, Adams B, Verma A, et al. Activation of glutamatergic neurotransmission by ketamine: a novel step in the pathway from NMDA receptor blockade to dopaminergic and cognitive disruptions associated with the prefrontal cortex. J Neuroscience. 1997;17:2921-2927.
87. Adams B, Moghaddam B. Corticolimbic dopamine neurotransmission is temporally dissociated from the cognitive and locomotor effects of phencyclidine. J Neurosci. 1998;18:5545-5554.
88. Hasegawa M, Kinoshita H, Amano M, et al. MK-801 increases endogenous acetylcholine release in the rat parietal cortex: a study using brain microdialysis. Neurosci Lett. 1993;150:53-56.
89. Giovannini MG, Camilli F, Mundula A, et al. Glutamatergic regulation of acetylcholine output in different brain regions: a microdialysis study in the rat. Neurochem Int (Oxford). 1994;25:23-26.
90. Kim SH, Price MT, Olney JW, et al. Excessive cerebrocortical release of acetylcholine induced by NMDA antagonists is reduced by GABAergic and a2-adrenergic agonists. Mol Psychiatry. 1999;4: 344-352.
91. Theberge J, Al-Semaan Y, Menon P, et al. Glutamate and glutamine in the anterior cingulate and thalamus of medicated patients with chronic schizophrenia and healthy comparison subjects measured with 4.0-T proton MRS. Am J Psychiatry. 2003;160:2231-2233.
92. Theberge J, Bartha R, Drost D, et al. Glutamate and glutamine measured with 4.0 T proton MRS in never-treated patients with schizophrenia and healthy volunteers. Am J Psychiatry. 2002;159: 1944-1946.
93. Torgersen S. Genetic factors in anxiety disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1983;40:1085-1089.
94. Crowe RR. The genetics of panic disorder and agoraphobia. Psychiatr Dev. 1985;3:171-185.
95. Wilhelm FH, Gerlach AL, Roth WT. Slow recovery from voluntary hyperventilation in panic disorder. Psychosom Med. 2001;63:638-649.
96. Pitts FN Jr, McClure JN Jr. Lactate metabolism in anxiety neurosis. N Engl J Med. 1967;277:1329-1336.
97. Liebowitz MR, Fyer AJ, Gorman JM, et al. Lactate provocation of panic attacks. I. Clinical and behavioral findings. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1984;41:764-770.
98. Dager SR, Cowley DS, Dunner DL. Biological markers in panic states: lactate-induced panic and mitral valve prolapse. Biol Psychiatry. 1987;22:339-359.
99. Uhde TW, Bouilenger JP. Caffeine model of panic In: Lerer I, Gershon S, eds. New Directions in Affective Disorders. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag; 1989:410-413.
100. Woods SW, Charney DS, Loke J, et al. Carbon dioxide sensitivity in panic anxiety. Ventilatory and anxiogenic response to carbon dioxide in healthy subjects and patients with panic anxiety before and after alprazolam treatment. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1986;43:900-909.
101. Maddock RJ, Carter CS, Gietzen DW. Elevated serum lactate associated with panic attacks induced by hyperventilation. Psychiatry Res. 1991;38:301-311.
102. Nazemi H, Dager SR. Coping strategies of panic and control subjects undergoing lactate infusion during MRI confinement. Compr Psychiatry. 2003;44:190-197.
103. Dager SR, Marro KI, Metzger GD, et al. Preliminary applications of magnetic resonance spectroscopy to investigate lactate-induced panic. Am J Psychiatry. 1994;151:57-63.
104. 1H MRS investigation of brain metabolic changes during lactate-induced panic. Psychiatry Res. 1997;76:89-99.
105. Friedman SD, Dager SR, Richards TL, et al. Modeling brain compartmental lactate response to metabolic challenge: a feasibility study. Psychiatry Res. 2000;98:55-66.
106. Shulman RG, Hyder F, Rothman DL. Cerebral energetics and the glycogen shunt neurochemical basis of functional imaging. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2001;98:6417-6422.
107. Dager SR, Friedman SD, Heide A, et al. Two-dimensional proton echo-planar spectroscopic imaging of brain metabolic changes during lactate-induced panic. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1999;56:70-77.
108. Layton ME, Friedman SD, Dager SR. Brain metabolic changes during lactate-induced panic: effects of gabapentin treatment. Depress Anxiety. 2001;14:251-254.
109. 31P nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy findings in bipolar illness: a meta-analysis. Psychiatry Res. 2001;106:181-191.
110. Moore CM, Christensen JD, Lafer B, et al. Lower levels of nucleoside triphosphate in the basal ganglia of depressed subjects: a phosphorous-31 magnetic resonance spectroscopy study. Am J Psychiatry. 1997;154:116-118.
111. 31P magnetic resonance spectroscopy in the frontal lobe of major depressed patients. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 1998;248:289-295.
112. Kato T, Murashita J, Kamiya A, et al. Decreased brain intracellular pH measured by 31P-MRS in bipolar disorder: a confirmation in drug-free patients and correlation with white matter hyperintensity. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 1998;248:301-306.
113. Kato T, Kato N. Mitochondrial dysfunction in bipolar disorder. Bipolar Disord. 2000;2:180-190.
114. Charles HC, Lazeyras F, Krishnan KRR, et al. Brain choline in depression: in vivo detection of potential pharmacodynamic effects of antidepressant therapy using hydrogen localized spectroscopy. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 1994;18:1121-1127.
115. Hamakawa H, Kato T, Murashita J, et al. Quantitative proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy of the basal ganglia in patients with affective disorders. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 1998;248: 53-58.
116. Steingard RJ, Yurgelun-Todd DA, Hennen J, et al. Increased orbitofrontal cortex levels of choline in depressed adolescents as detected by in vivo proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Biol Psychiatry. 2000;48:1053-1061.
117. Renshaw PF, Lafer B, Babb SM, et al. Basal ganglia choline levels in depression and response to fluoxetine treatment: an in vivo proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy study. Biol Psychiatry. 1997; 41:837-843.
118. Sonawalla SB, Renshaw PF, Moore CM, et al. Compounds containing cytosolic choline in the basal ganglia: a potential biological marker of true drug response to fluoxetine. Am J Psychiatry. 1999; 156:1638-1640.
119. Ende G, Braus DF, Walter S, et al. The hippocampus in patients treated with electroconvulsive therapy: a proton magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2000;57:937-943.
120. Frye MA, Thomas MA, Yue K, et al. Reduced concentrations of N-acetylaspartate (NAA) and the NAA-creatine ratio in the basal ganglia in bipolar disorder: a study using 3-Tesla proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Psychiatry Res. 2007;154:259-265.
121. Clausen T, Zauner A, Levasseur JE, et al. Induced mitochondrial failure in the feline brain: implications for understanding acute post-traumatic metabolic events. Brain Res. 2001;908:35-48.
122. Modica-Napolitano JS, Renshaw PF. Ethanolamine and phosphoethanolamine inhibit mitochondrial bioenergetic function in vitro: implications for mitochondrial dysfunction hypothesis in depression and bipolar disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2004;55:273-277.
123. Manji HK, Quiroz JA, Sporn J, et al. Enhancing neuronal plasticity and cellular resilience to develop novel, improved therapeutics for difficult-to-treat depression. Biol Psychiatry. 2003;53:707-742.
124. Friedman SF, Dager SR, Parow A, et al. Lithium and valproic acid treatment effects on brain chemistry in bipolar disorder. Bio Psychiatry. 2004;56:340-348.
125. Sanacora G, Mason GF, Rothman DL, et al. Reduced cortical cg-aminobutyric acid levels in depressed patients determined by proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1999;56: 1043-1047.
126. Sanacora G, Gueorguieva R, Epperson CN, et al. Subtype-specific alterations of g-aminobutyric acid and glutamate in patients with major depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2004;61:705-713.
127. Sanacora G, Mason GF, Rothman DL, et al. Increased cortical GABA concentrations in depressed patients receiving ECT. Am J Psychiatry. 2003;160:577-579.
128. Sanacora G, Mason GF, Rothman DL, et al. Increased occipital cortex GABA concentrations in depressed patients after therapy with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. Am J Psychiatry. 2002;159:663-665.
129. Bhagwagar Z, Wylezinska M, Jezzard P, et al. Low GABA concentrations in occipital cortex and anterior cingulate cortex in medication-free, recovered depressed patients. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2007;11:1-6.
130. Cotter DR, Pariante CM, Everall IP. Glial cell abnormalities in major psychiatric disorders: the evidence and implications. Brain Res Bull. 2001;55:585-595.
131. Uranova NA, Vostrikov VM, Orlovskaya DD, et al. Oligodendroglial density in the prefrontal cortex in schizophrenia and mood disorders: a study from the Stanley Neuropathology Consortium. Schizophr Res. 2004;67:269-275.
132. Hasler G, van der Veen JW, Tumonis T, et al. Reduced prefrontal glutamate/glutamine and gamma-aminobutyric acid levels in major depression determined using proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2007;64:193-200.
133. Becker ED, Fisk CL. NMR: physical principles and current status as a biomedical technique. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1987;508:1-9.
134. Vaughan T, DelaBarre L, Snyder C, et al. 9.4T human MRI: preliminary results. Magn Reson Med. 2006;56:1274-1282.
135. 1H-MRS in investigating the metabolism of the activated human visual cortex at 7 T. Magn Reson Imaging. 2006;24:343-348.
136. Wald LL, Moyher SE, Day MR, et al. Proton spectroscopic imaging of the human brain using phased array detectors. Magn Reson Med. 1995;34:440-445.
137. 13 C-decouple spectroscopic measurements of lactate and glutamate in the rat brain in vivo. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1985;82:1633-1637.
138. 13C NMR spectroscopy and metabolic modeling in the brain: a practical perspective. Magn Reson Imaging. 2006;24:527-539.
139. 1H magnetic resonance spectroscopy study. NMR Biomed. 1988;1:20-22.
140. 13C magnetic resonance imaging for in vivo tumor diagnosis. Cancer Res. 2006;66:10855-10860.
141. Golman K, in't Zandt R, Thaning M. Real-time metabolic imaging. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2006;103:11270-11275.
142. Rohan M, Parow A, Stoll AL, et al. Low-field magnetic stimulation in bipolar depression using an MRI-based stimulator. Am J Psychiatry. 2004;161:93-98.