Fluid dynamics in developmental biology: Moving fluids that shape ontogeny

HFSP Journal

Volumn 3, Issue 2, 2009, Pages 77-93

  Cartwright, Julyan H E ^a   Piro, Oreste ^b   Tuval, Idan ^c  

^a INSTITUTO ANDALUZ DE CIENCIAS DE LA TIERRA   (Spain)

^b UNIVERSITAT DE LES ILLES BALEARS   (Spain)

^c UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 67649731526     PISSN: 19552068     EISSN: 1955205X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2976/1.3043738     Document Type: Review

References (155)

1. Abraham, ER (1998). "The generation of plankton patchiness by turbulent stirring." Nature (London) 391, 577-580.
2. Alward, WLM (2003). "A new angle on ocular development." Science 299, 1578-1581.
3. Arnold, JM, and Williams-Arnold, LD (1980). "Development of the ciliature pattern on the embryo of the squid Loligo pealei: a scanning electron microscope study." Biol. Bull. 159, 102-116.
4. Assheton, R (1896). "Notes on the ciliation of the ectoderm of the amphibian embryo." J. Cell. Sci. 38, 465-484.
5. Bagnat, M, Cheung, ID, Mostov, KE, and Stainier, DYR (2007). "Genetic control of single lumen formation in the zebrafish gut." Nat. Cell Biol. 9, 954-960.
6. Bartman, T, Walsh, EC, Wen, K-K, Mckane, M, Ren, J, Alexander, J, Rubenstein, PA, and Stainier, DYR (2004). "Early myocardial function affects endocardial cushion development in zebrafish." PLoS Biol. 2, e129.
7. Beall, MH, van den Wijngaard, JPHM, van Gemert, MJC, and Ross, MG (2007). "Amniotic fluid water dynamics." Placenta 28, 816-823.
8. Bill, A (1975). "Blood circulation and fluid dynamics in the eye." Physiol. Rev. 55, 383-417.
9. Billett, F, and Courtenay, T (1973). "A stereoscan study of the origin of ciliated cells in the embryonic epidermis of Ambystoma mexicanum." J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol. 29, 549-558.
10. Black, S (1996). "Regulative development of Xenopus laevis in microgravity." Adv. Space Res. 17, 209-217.
11. Boardman, KC, and Swartz, MA (2003). "Interstitial flow as a guide for lymphangiogenesis." Circ. Res. 92, 801-808.
12. Bouligand, Y (2004). "The renewal of ideas about biomineralisations." Comptes Rendus Palevol 3, 617-628.
13. Brown, NA, and Wolpert, L (1990). "The development of handedness in left/right asymmetry." Development 109, 1-9.
14. Brubaker, RF (1982). "The flow of aqueous humor in the human eye." Trans. Am. Ophthalmol. Soc. 80, 391-474.
15. Bryant, D, and Mostov, K (2007). "Development: inflationary pressures." Nature (London) 449, 549-550.
16. Burggren, WW (2004). "What is the purpose of the embryonic heart beat? or how facts can ultimately prevail over physiological dogma." Physiol. and Biochem. Zoology 77, 333-345.
17. Bush, JWM, and Hu, DL (2006). "Walking on water: biolocomotion at the interface." Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech. 38, 339-369.
18. Calera, MR, Topley, HL, Liao, Y, Duling, BR, Paul, DL, and Goodenough, DA (2006). "Connexin43 is required for production of the aqueous humor in the murine eye." J. Cell. Sci. 119, 4510-4519.
19. Canny, MJ (1977). "Flow and transport in plants." Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech. 9, 275-296.
20. Cartwright, JHE, and Checa, AG (2007). "The dynamics of nacre selfassembly." J. R. Soc., Interface 4, 491-504.
21. Cartwright, JHE, Checa, AG, Escribano, B, and Sainz-Diaz, CI (2008). "Spiral and target patterns in nacre: layer growth of a liquid crystal." preprint.
22. Cartwright, JHE, García-Ruiz, JM, Novella, ML, and Otálora, F (2002). "Formation of chemical gardens." J. Colloid Interface Sci. 256, 351-359.
23. Cartwright, JHE, and Khokhlov, S (2008). "How do fish hear? The physics of the otolith." preprint.
24. Cartwright, JHE, Piro, O, and Tuval, I (2004). "Fluid-dynamical basis of the embryonic development of left-right asymmetry in vertebrates." Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 101, 7234-7239.
25. Cartwright, JHE, Piro, N, Piro, O, and Tuval, I (2007). "Embryonic nodal flow and the dynamics of nodal vesicular parcels." J. R. Soc., Interface 4, 49-55.
26. Cartwright, JHE, Piro, N, Piro, O, and Tuval, I (2008). "Fluid dynamics of nodal flow and left-right patterning in development." Dev. Dyn. 237, 3477-3490.
27. Chang, P, Perez-Mongiovi, D, and Houliston, E (1999). "Organisation of Xenopus oocyte and egg cortices." Microsc. Res. Tech. 44, 415-429.
28. Checa, AG, and García-Ruiz, JM (1996). "Morphogenesis of the septum in ammonoids." In Ammonoid Paleobiology, Landman, NH, Tanabe, K, and Davis, RA, eds., Plenum, NewYork.
29. Childress, S (1981). Mechanics of Swimming and Flying, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
30. Chung, H, and Malacinski, G (1982). "Pattern formation during early amphibian development: embryogenesis in inverted anuran and urodele." Dev. Biol. 93, 444-452.
31. Chung, H, and Malacinski, G (1983). "Reversal of developmental competence in inverted amphibian eggs." J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol. 73, 207-220.
32. Clarke, J (2006). "Cell migration: neurons go with the flow." Curr. Biol. 16, R337-R339.
33. Coleman-Phox, K, Odouli, R, and Li, D-K (2008). "Use of a fan during sleep and the risk of sudden infant death syndrome." Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 162, 963-968.
34. Cowin, S (2004). "Do liquid crystal-like flow processes occur in the supramolecular assembly of biological tissues?" J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech. 119, 155-162.
35. Davies, PF (1995). "Flow mediated endothelial mechanotransduction." Physiol. Rev. 75, 519-560.
36. Dawkins, R (1989). The Extended Phenotype: The Long Reach of the Gene, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
37. De Coppi, P, et al. (2007). "Isolation of amniotic stem cell lines with potential for therapy." Nat. Biotechnol. 25, 100-106.
38. de Langre, E (2008). "Effects of wind on plants." Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech. 40, 141-168.
39. Del Riccio, V, Van Tuyl, M, and Post, M (2004). "A poptosis in lung development and neonatal lung injury." Pediatr. Res. 55, 183-189.
40. Desmond, ME, and Jacobson, AG (1977). "Embryonic brain enlargement requires cerebrospinal fluid pressure." Dev. Biol. 57, 188-98.
41. Diefenbach, TJ, Koehncke, NK, and Goldberg, JI (1991). "Characterization and development of rotational behavior in Helisoma embryos: role of endogenous serotonin." J. Neurobiol. 22, 922-934.
42. Drayton, DL, Liao, S, Mounzer, RH, and Ruddle, N H (2006). "Lymphoid organ development: from ontogeny to neogenesis." Nat. Immun. 7, 344-353.
43. Du, Z, Duan, Y, Yan, QS, Weinstein, AM, Weinbaum, S, and Wang, T (2004). "Mechanosensory function of microvilli of the kidney proximal tubule." Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 101, 13068-13073.
44. Dudley, R (2000). The Biomechanics of Insect Flight: Form, Function, Evolution, Princeton University Press, Princeton.
45. Elinson, R, and Holowacz, T (1995). "Specifying the dorsoanterior axis in frogs: 70 years since Spemann and Mangold." Curr. Top Dev. Biol. 30, 253-285.
46. Elinson, R, and Rowning, B (1988). "A transient array of parallel microtubules in frog eggs: potential tracks for a cytoplasmic rotation." Dev. Biol. 128, 185-197.
47. Ewer, J (2005). "How the ecdysozoan changed its coat." PLoS Biol. 3, e349.
48. Faber, TE (1995). Fluid Dynamics for Physicists, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
49. Fauci, LJ, and Dillon, R (2006). "Biofluidmechanics of reproduction." Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech. 38, 371-394.
50. Fliegauf, M, Benzing, T, and Omran, H (2007). "When cilia go bad: cilia defects and ciliopathies." Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 8, 880-893.
51. Forouhar, AS, Liebling, M, Hickerson, A, Nasiraei-Moghaddam, A, Tsai, H-J, Hove, JR, Fraser, SE, Dickinson, M E, and Gharib, M (2006). "The embryonic vertebrate heart tube is a dynamic suction pump." Science 312, 751-753.
52. Gerhart, J, Danilchik, M, Doniach, T, and Roberts, S (1989). "Cortical rotation of the Xenopus egg: consequences for the anteroposterior pattern of embryonic dorsal development." Development 107, 37-51.
53. Goldberg, J, Doran, S, Shartau, R, Pon, J, Ali, D, Tam, R, and Kuang, S (2008). "Integrative biology of an embryonic respiratory behaviour in pond snails: the 'embryo stir-bar hypothesis'." J. Exp. Biol. 211, 1729-1736.
54. Goldstein, RE, Tuval, I, and van de Meent, JW (2008). "Microfluidics of cytoplasmic streaming and its implications for intracellular transport." Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 105, 3663-3667.
55. Gordon, JE (1981). Structures, or,Why Things Don't Fall Down, Penguin, London.
56. Grotberg, JB, and Jensen, OE (2004). "Biofluid mechanics in flexible tubes." Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech. 36, 121-147.
57. Haeckel, E (1917). Kristallseelen: Studien über das anorganische Leben, Alfred Kroner, Leipzig; translated and annotated in Mackay, AL, (2007), Ernst Haeckel and Biological Form, Lulu.com.
58. Hammond, KL, and Whitfield, TT (2006). "The developing lamprey ear closely resembles the zebrafish otic vesicle: otx 1 expression can account for all major patterning differences." Development 133, 1347-1357.
59. Happel, J, and Brenner, H (1983). Low Reynolds Number Hydrodynamics, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
60. Helm, CL, Fleury, M, Zisch, A, Boschetti, F, and Swartz, M (2005). "Synergy between interstitial flow and vegf directs capillary morphogenesis in vitro through a gradient amplification mechanism." Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 102, 15779-15784.
61. Herrera, AL (1903). Nociones de Biología, Imprenta de la Secretaria de Fomento, Mexcio, facsimile ed., Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Mexico, 1992 (in Spanish).
62. Hillsley, MV, and Frangos, JA (1994). "Bone tissue engineering: the role of interstitial fluid flow." Biotechnol. Bioeng. 43, 573-581.
63. Hird, SN, and White, JG (1993). "Cortical and cytoplasmic flow polarity in early embryonic cells of Caenorhabditis elegans." J. Cell. Sci. 121, 1343-1355.
64. Hooper, SB, et al. (2007). "Imaging lung aeration and lung liquid clearance at birth." FASEB J. 21, 3329-3337.
65. Hooper, SB, and Harding, R (1995). "Fetal lung liquid: a major determinant of the growth and functional development of the fetal lung." Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol. 22, 235-241.
66. Hove, JR, Koster, RW, Forouhar, AS, Acevedo-Bolton, G, Fraser, SE, and Gharib, M (2003). "Intracardiac fluid forces are an essential epigenetic factor for embryonic cardiogenesis." Nature (London) 421, 172-177.
67. Hunter, T, and Vogel, S (1986). "Spinning embryos enhance diffusion through gelatinous egg masses." J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 96, 303-308.
68. Ibañez-Tallon, I, Heintz, N, and Omran, H (2003). "To beat or not to beat: roles of cilia in development and disease." Hum. Mol. Genet. 12, 27R-35R.
69. Jaffe, M (1973). "Thigmomorphogenesis: the response of plant growth and development to mechanical stimulation." Planta 114, 143-157.
70. Johnstone, M, and Grant, W (1973). "Pressure-dependent changes in structures of the aqueous outflow system of human and monkey eyes." Am. J. Ophthalmol. 75, 365-383.
71. Jones, EAV, Le Noble, F, and Eichmann, A (2006). "What determines blood vessel structure? Genetic prespecification vs. hemodynamics." J. Physiol. (London) 21, 388-395.
72. Jones, JC, and Oldroyd, BP (2007). "Nest thermoregulation in social insects." J. Insect Physiol. 33, 153-191.
73. Jungreis, AM, and Harvey, WR (1975). "Role of active potassium transport by integumentary epithelium in secretion of larvalpupal moulting fluid during silkmoth development." J. Exp. Biol. 62, 357-366.
74. Kaandorp, JA, Lowe, CP, Frenkel, D, and Sloot, PM A (1996). "Effect of nutrient diffusion and flow on coral morphology." Phys. Rev. Lett. 77, 2328-2331.
75. Kamiya, N, and Kuroda, K (1956). "Velocity distribution of the protoplasmic streaming in Nitella cells." Bot. Mag. Tokyo 69, 544-554.
76. Kessel, R, Beams, H, and Shih, C (1974). "The origin, distribution and disappearance of surface cilia during embryonic development of Rana pipiens as revealed by scanning electron microscopy." Am. J. Anat. 141, 341-360.
77. Koehl, MAR (1996). "When does morphology matter?" Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 27, 501-542.
78. Koehl, MAR, and Reidenbach, MA (2007). "Swimming by microscopic organisms in ambient water flow." Exp. Fluids 43, 755-768.
79. Kramer-Zucker, AG, Olale, F, Haycraft, CJ, Yoder, BK, Schierand, A F, and Drummond, I A (2005). "Cilia-driven fluid flow in the zebrafish pronephros, brain and Kupffer's vesicle is required for normal organogenesis." Development 132, 1907-1921.
80. Kriebel, ME (1970). "Wave front analyses of impulses in tunicate heart." Am. J. Physiol. 218, 1194-1200.
81. Le Noble, F, Moyon, D, Pardanaud, L, Yuan, L, Djonov, V, Matthijsen, R, Bréant, C, Fleury, V, and Eichmann, A (2003). "Flow regulates arterial-venous differentiation in the chick embryo yolk sac." Development 131, 361-375.
82. Leduc, S (1911). The Mechanism of Life, Rebman, London.
83. Lee, R (2003). "Lessons from lymph: flow-guided vessel formation." Circ. Res. 92, 701-703.
84. Lensky, Y, Cohen, C, and Schneiderman, HA (1970). "The origin, distribution and fate of the molting fluid proteins of the Cecropia silkworm." Biol. Bull. 139, 277-295.
85. Liu, H, and Wintour, EM (2005). "Aquaporins in development-a review." Reprod. Biol. Endocrinol 3, 18-28.
86. Liu, M, Skinner, SJ, Xu, J, Han, RN, Tanswell, AK, and Post, M (1992). "Stimulation of fetal rat lung cell proliferation in vitro by mechanical stretch." Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell. Mol. Physiol. 263, 376-383.
87. Lubarsky, B, and Krasnow, MA (2003). "Tube morphogenesis: making and shaping biological tubes." Cell 112, 19-28.
88. Lubkin, SR (2007). "Developmental biology: branching morphogenesis." In Complex Systems Science in Biomedicine, Deisboeck, TS, and Kresh, JY, eds., Springer, pp. 357-374.
89. Mann, SE, Nijland, MJ M, and Ross, MG (1996). "Mathematic modeling of human amniotic fluid dynamics." Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 175, 937-944.
90. Metzger, RJ, Klein, OD, Martin, GR, and Krasnow, MA (2008). "The branching programme of mouse lung development." Nature (London) 453, 745-750.
91. Mironov, V, Visconti, RP, and Markwald, RR (2005). "On the role of shear stress in cardiogenesis." Endothelium 12, 259-261.
92. Mitchell, B, Jacobs, R, Li, J, Chien, S, and Kintner, C (2007). "A positive feedback mechanism governs the polarity and motion of motile cilia." Nature (London) 447, 97-101.
93. Miyan, JA, Nabiyouni, M, and Zendah, M (2003). "Development of the brain: a vital role for cerebrospinal fluid." Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 81, 317-328.
94. Mizokami, K, Sugiura, T, and San Juan, RG (1994). "The development of human trabecular meshwork." Med Electron Microsc. 27, 275-281.
95. Modena, AB, and Fieni, S (2004). "Amniotic fluid dynamics." Ateneo Parmense, Acta Bio-Med. 75, 11-13.
96. Moorman, AFM, and Christoffels, VM (2003). "Cardiac chamber formation: development, genes, and evolution." Physiol. Rev. 83, 1223-1267.
97. Moorman, AFM, Soufan, AT, Hagoort, J, Boer, P, and Christoffels, VM (2004). "Development of the building plan of the heart." Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1015, 171-181.
98. Moulia, B, Coutand, C, and Lenner, C (2006). "Posture control and skeletal mechanical acclimation in terrestrial plants: implications for mechanical modeling of plant architecture." Am. J. Bot. 93, 1477-1489.
99. Munro, E, Nance, J, and Priess, JR (2004). "Cortical flows powered by asymmetrical contraction transport par proteins to establish and maintain anterior-posterior polarity in the early C. elegans embryo." Dev. Cell 7, 413-424.
100. Neff, A, Smith, R, and Malacinski, G (1986). "Amphibian egg cytoplasm response to altered g-forces and gravity orientation." Adv. Space Res. 6, 21-28.
101. Neff, A, Wakahara, M, Jurand, A, and Malacinski, G (1984). "Experimental analyses of cytoplasmic rearrangements which follow fertilization and accompany symmetrization of inverted Xenopus eggs." J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol. 80, 197-224.
102. Neville, AC (1993). Biology of Fibrous Composites: Development Beyond the Cell Membrane, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
103. Nico, B, et al. (2003). "Severe alterations of endothelial and glial cells in the blood-brain barrier of dystrophic mdx mice." Glia 42, 235-251.
104. Nielsen, SK, Møllgård, K, Clement, CA, Veland, IR, Awan, A, Yoder, BK, Novak, I, and Christensen, ST (2008). "Characterization of primary cilia and hedgehog signaling during development of the human pancreas and in human pancreatic duct cancer cell lines." Dev. Dyn. 237, 2039-2052.
105. Nonaka, S, Shiratori, H, Saijoh, Y, and Hamada, H (2002). "Determination of left-right patterning of the mouse embryo by artificial nodal flow." Nature (London) 418, 96-99.
106. Nonaka, S, Tanaka, Y, Okada, Y, Takeda, S, Harada, A, Kanai, Y, Kido, M, and Hirokawa, N (1998). "Randomization of left-right asymmetry due to loss of nodal cilia generating leftward flow of extraembryonic fluid in mice lacking kif3b motor protein." Cell 95, 829-837.
107. Nouri, C, Luppes, R, Veldman, A, Tuszynski, J, and Gordon, R (2008). "Rayleigh instability of the inverted one-cell amphibian embryo." Phys. Biol. 5, 015006.
108. Oi, S, and Rocco, C (2006). "Proposal of 'evolution theory in cerebrospinal fluid dynamics' and minor pathway hydrocephalus in developing immature brain." Childs Nerv. Syst. 22, 662-669.
109. Okada, Y, Nonaka, S, Tanaka, Y, Saijoh, Y, Hamada, H, and Hirokawa, N (1999). "Abnormal nodal flow precedes situs inversus in iv and inv mice." Mol. Cell 4, 59-468.
110. Olver, RE, Walters, DV, and Wilson, SM (2004). "Developmental regulation of lung liquid transport." Annu. Rev. Physiol. 66, 77-101.
111. Owan, I, Burr, DB, Turner, CH, Qiu, J, Tu, Y, Onyia, JE, and Duncan, RL (1997). "Mechanotransduction in bone: osteoblasts are more responsive to fluid forces than mechanical strain." Am. J. Physiol.: Cell Physiol. 273, 810-815.
112. Patterson, C (2005). "Even flow: shear cues vascular development." Arterioscler., Thromb., Vasc. Biol. 25, 1761-1762.
113. Pedley, TJ (1977). "Pulmonary fluid dynamics." Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech. 9, 229-274.
114. Peterson, R, Power, J, and Martin-Robichaud, D (1991). "Morphological basis of the pectoral fin flutter of embryonic Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)." Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 48, 2223-2227.
115. Phillips, C, Whalon, B, Moore, J, and Danilchik, M (1996). "Gravitational effects on the rearrangement of cytoplasmic components during axial formation in amphibian development." Adv. Space Res. 17, 225-235.
116. Popper, AN, Ramcharitar, J, and Campana, SE (2005). "Why otoliths? Insights from inner ear physiology and fisheries biology." Mar. Freshwater Res. 56, 497-504.
117. Praetorius, HA, and Spring, KR (2001). "Bending the mdck cell primary cilium increases intracellular calcium." J. Membr. Biol. 184, 71-79.
118. Purcell, EM (1977). "Life at low Reynolds number." Am. J. Phys. 45, 3-11.
119. Rand, RH (1983). "Fluid mechanics of green plants." Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech. 15, 29-45.
120. Resnick, N, Yahav, H, Shay-Salit, A, Shushy, M, Schubert, S, Chen, L, Zilberman, M, and Wofovitz, E, (2003). "Fluid shear stress and the vascular endothelium: for better and for worse." Prog. Biophys. Mol. Biol. 81, 177-199.
121. Riley, BB, Zhu, C, Janetopoulos, C, and Aufderheide, KJ (1997). "A critical period of ear development controlled by distinct populations of ciliated cells in the zebrafish." Dev. Biol. 191, 191-201.
122. Rutkowski, JM, and Swartz, MA (2007). "A driving force for change: interstitial flow as a morphoregulator." Trends Cell Biol. 17, 44-50.
123. Sawamoto, K, et al. (2006). "New neurons follow the flow of cerebrospinal fluid in the adult brain." Science 311, 629-632.
124. Schittny, JC, Miserocchi, G, and Sparrow, MP (2000). "Spontaneous peristaltic airway contractions propel lung liquid through the bronchial tree of intact and fetal lung explants." Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 23, 11-18.
125. Serluca, FC, Drummond, IA, and Fishman, MC (2002). "Endothelial signaling in kidney morphogenesis: a role for hemodynamic forces." Curr. Biol. 12, 492-497.
126. Shapiro, F (2008). "Bone development and its relation to fracture repair the role of mesenchymal osteoblasts and surface osteoblasts." Eur. Cells Mater 15, 53-76.
127. Simons, M, and Walz, G (2006). "Polycystic kidney disease: cell division without a c(l)ue?." Kidney Int. 70, 854-864.
128. Skalak, R, Ozkaya, N, and Skalak, TC (1989). "Biofluid mechanics." Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech. 21, 167-200.
129. Smelser, G, and Ozanics, V (1971). "The development of the trabecular meshwork in primate eyes." Am. J. Ophthalmol. 71, 366-385.
130. Smith, V, and Ennos, A (2003). "The effects of air flow and stem flexure on the mechanical and hydraulic properties of the stems of sunflowers Helianthus annuus L." J. Exp. Bot. 54, 845-849.
131. Taber, LA (2006). "Biophysical mechanisms of cardiac looping." Int. J. Dev. Biol. 50, 323-332.
132. Tanaka, Y, Okada, Y, and Hirokawa, N (2005). "Fgf-induced vesicular release of sonic hedgehog and retinoic acid in leftward nodal flow is critical for left-right determination." Nature (London) 435, 172-177.
133. Thompson, DW (1917). On Growth and Form, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
134. Topper, JN, and Gimbrone, Jr, MA (1999). "Blood flow and vascular gene expression: fluid shear stress as a modulator of endothelial phenotype." Mol. Med. Today 5, 40-46.
135. Tritton, DJ (1988). Physical Fluid Dynamics, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
136. Tsarouhas, V, Senti, K, Jayaram, S, Tiklova, K, Hemphala, J, Adler, J, and Samakovlis, C (2007). "Sequential pulses of apical epithelial secretion and endocytosis drive airway maturation in Drosophila." Dev. Cell 13, 214-225.
137. Turner, JS (2002). The Extended Organism: the Physiology of Animal-Built Structures, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
138. Vogan, KJ, and Tabin, CJ (1999). "A new spin on handed asymmetry." Nature (London) 397, 295-298.
139. Vogel, S (1992). Vital Circuits: on Pumps, Pipes, and theWorkings of Circulatory Systems, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
140. Vogel, S (1994). Life in Moving Fluids: the Physical Biology of Flow, Princeton University Press, Princeton.
141. von Dassow, G, and Schubiger, G (1994). "How an actin network might cause fountain streaming and nuclear migration in the syncytial Drosophila embryo." J. Cell Biol. 127, 1637-1653.
142. Wakahara, M, Neff, A, and Malacinski, G (1984). "Topology of the germ plasm and development of primordial germ cells in inverted amphibian eggs." Differentiation 26, 203-210.
143. Wang, H, Riha, GM, Yan, S, Li, M, Chai, H, Yang, H, Yao, Q, and Chen, C (2005). "Shear stress induces endothelial differentiation from a murine embryonic mesenchymal progenitor cell line." Arterioscler., Thromb., Vasc. Biol. 25, 1817-1823.
144. Wang, ZJ (2005). "Dissecting insect flight." Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech. 37, 83-210.
145. Warburton, D (2008). "Order in the lung." Nature (London) 453, 733-735.
146. Warburton, F (1960). "Influence of currents on form of sponges." Science 132, 89.
147. Wenning, A, and Meyer, EP (2007). "Hemodynamics in the leech: blood flow in two hearts switching between two constriction patterns." J. Exp. Biol. 210, 2627-2636.
148. Whitting, HP, and Bone, Q (1980). "Ciliary cells in the epidermis of the larval Australian dipnoan. Neoceratodus." Zoological J. of the Linnean Society 68, 125-137.
149. Williams, TA (1994). "A model of rowing propulsion and the ontogeny of locomotion in Artemia larvae." Biol. Bull. 187, 164-173.
150. Wolke, U, Jezuit, EA, and Priess, JR (2007). "Actin-dependent cytoplasmic streaming in C. elegans oogenesis." Development 134, 2227-2236.
151. Wulle, KG (1972). "The development of the productive and draining system of the aqueous humor in the human eye." Adv. Ophthalmol. 26, 296-355.
152. Xu, J, Liu, M, Tanswell, AK, and Post, M (1998). "Mesenchymal determination of mechanical strain-induced fetal lung cell proliferation." Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell. Mol. Physiol. 275, 545-550.
153. Yamamoto, K, et al. (2004). "Fluid shear stress induces differentiation of flk-1-positive embryonic stem cells into vascular endothelial cells in vitro." Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol. 288, H1915-H1924.
154. Yoder, BK (2007). "Role of primary cilia in the pathogenesis of polycystic kidney disease." J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 18, 1381-1388.
155. Yokoyama, T (2004). "Motor or sensor: a new aspect of primary cilia function." Anatomical Science International 79, 47-54.