Epilepsy, regulation of brain energy metabolism and neurotransmission

Current Medicinal Chemistry

Volumn 16, Issue 7, 2009, Pages 841-853

  Cloix, Jean François ^a   Hévor, Tobias ^a  

^a UNIVERSITÉ D'ORLÉANS   (France)

Author keywords

Astrocytes; Chemically induced epilepsy; Epilepsy; Gluconeogenesis; Glycogen; Glycogenesis; Methionine sulfoximine

Indexed keywords

GLYCOGEN; METHIONINE SULFOXIMINE;

ASTROCYTE; BRAIN LEVEL; BRAIN METABOLISM; CELL FUNCTION; CHEMICAL ANALYSIS; DISEASE MODEL; ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAM; ENERGY METABOLISM; EPILEPSY; EPILEPTOGENESIS; GENOTYPE; GLIA CELL; GLUCOSE TRANSPORT; GLYCOGEN SYNTHESIS; GLYCOLYSIS; HUMAN; NEUROTRANSMISSION; NONHUMAN; REVIEW;

ANIMALS; BRAIN; DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL; ENERGY METABOLISM; EPILEPSY; GLYCOGEN; HUMANS; METHIONINE SULFOXIMINE; SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION;

EID: 65649136954     PISSN: 09298673     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/092986709787549316     Document Type: Review

References (199)

1. Noctor, S.C.; Flint, A.C.; Weissman, T.A.; Dammerman, R.S.; Kriegstein, A.R. Neurons derived from radial glial cells establish radial units in neocortex. Nature, 2001, 409, 714-720.
2. Song, H.; Stevens, C.F.; Gage, F.H. Astroglia induce neurogenesis from adult neural stem cells. Nature, 2002, 417, 39-44
3. Pfrieger, F.W. Role of cholesterol in synapse formation and function. Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 2003, 1610, 271-280.
4. Ullian, E.M.; Sapperstein, S.K.; Christopherson, K.S.; Barres, B.A. Control of synapse number by glia. Science, 2001, 291, 657-661.
5. Pfrieger, F.W.; Barres, B.A. Synaptic efficacy enhanced by glial cells in vitro. Science, 1997, 277, 1684-1687.
6. Pfrieger, F.W. Role of glia in synapse development. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol., 2002, 12, 486-490.
7. Smit, A.B.; Syed, N.I.; Schaap, D.; van Minnen, J.; Klumperman, J.; Kits, K.S.; Lodder, H.; van der Schors, R.C.; van Elk, R.; Sorgedrager, B.; Brejc, K.; Sixma, T.K.; Geraerts, W.P. A gliaderived acetylcholine-binding protein that modulates synaptic transmission. Nature, 2001, 411, 261-268.
8. Beattie, E.C.; Stellwagen, D.; Morishita, W.; Bresnahan, J.C.; Ha, B.K.; Von Zastrow, M.; Beattie, M.S.; Malenka, R.C. Control of synaptic strength by glial TNFalpha. Science, 2002, 295, 2282-2285.
9. Everitt, A.D.; Sander, J.W. Classification of the epilepsies: Time for a change? A critical review of the International Classification of the Epilepsies and Epileptic Syndromes (ICEES) and its usefulness in clinical practice and epidemiological studies of epilepsy. Eur. Neurol., 1999, 42, 1-10.
10. Proposal for revised clinical and electroencephalographic classification of epileptic seizures. From the Commission on Classification and Terminology of the International League Against Epilepsy. Epilepsia, 1981, 22, 489-501.
11. Proposal for classification of epilepsies and epileptic syndromes. Commission on Classification and Terminology of the International League Against Epilepsy. Epilepsia, 1985, 26, 268-278
12. Proposal for revised classification of epilepsies and epileptic syndromes. Commission on Classification and Terminology of the International League Against Epilepsy. Epilepsia, 1989, 30, 389-399.
13. Dreifuss, F.E. Classification of the epilepsies: Influence on management. Rev. Neurol. (Paris), 1987, 143, 375-380.
14. Wieser, H.G.; Blume, W.T.; Fish, D.; Goldensohn, E.; Hufnagel, A.; King, D.; Sperling, M.R.; Luders, H.; Pedley, T.A. ILAE Commission Report. Proposal for a new classification of outcome with respect to epileptic seizures following epilepsy surgery. Epilepsia, 2001, 42, 282-286.
15. Rampp, S.; Stefan, H. Fast activity as a surrogate marker of epileptic network function? Clin. Neurophysiol., 2006, 117, 2111-2117.
16. Johnston, M.V. Developmental aspects of epileptogenesis. Epilepsia, 1996, 37(Suppl 1), S2-9.
17. Dudek, F.E.; Patrylo, P.R.; Wuarin, J.P. Mechanisms of neuronal synchronization during epileptiform activity. Adv. Neurol., 1999, 79, 699-708.
18. McCormick, D.A.; Contreras, D. On the cellular and network bases of epileptic seizures. Annu. Rev. Physiol., 2001, 63, 815-846.
19. Uhlhaas, P.J.; Singer, W. Neural synchrony in brain disorders: Relevance for cognitive dysfunctions and pathophysiology. Neuron, 2006, 52, 155-168.
20. Scharfman, H.E. The neurobiology of epilepsy. Curr. Neurol. Neurosci. Rep., 2007, 7, 348-354.
21. Sitoh, Y.Y.; Tien, R.D. Neuroimaging in epilepsy. J. Magn. Reson. Imaging, 1998, 8, 277-288.
22. Engel, J., Jr.; Brown, W.J.; Kuhl, D.E.; Phelps, M.E.; Mazziotta, J.C.; Crandall, P.H. Pathological findings underlying focal temporal lobe hypometabolism in partial epilepsy. Ann. Neurol., 1982, 12, 518-528.
23. Engel, J., Jr.; Kuhl, D.E.; Phelps, M.E.; Rausch, R.; Nuwer, M. Local cerebral metabolism during partial seizures. Neurology, 1983, 33, 400-413.
24. Anderson, V.E.; Hauser, W.A.; Rich, S.S. Genetic heterogeneity and epidemiology of the epilepsies. Adv. Neurol., 1999, 79, 59-73.
25. Niedermeyer, E. Dipole theory and electroencephalography. Clin. Electroencephalogr, 1996, 27, 121-131.
26. Henderson, J.A.; Phillips, A.J.; Robinson, P.A. Multielectrode electroencephalogram power spectra: Theory and application to approximate correction of volume conduction effects. Phys. Rev. E. Stat. Nonlin. Soft. Matter. Phys., 2006, 73, 051918.
27. Onton, J.; Westerfield, M.; Townsend, J.; Makeig, S. Imaging human EEG dynamics using independent component analysis. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev., 2006, 30, 808-822.
28. Onton, J.; Makeig, S. Information-based modeling of event-related brain dynamics. Prog. Brain Res., 2006, 159, 99-120.
29. Fountain, N.B.; Bear, J.; Bertram, E.H., 3rd; Lothman, E.W. Responses of deep entorhinal cortex are epileptiform in an electrogenic rat model of chronic temporal lobe epilepsy. J. Neurophysiol., 1998, 80, 230-240.
30. Hallez, H.; Vanrumste, B.; Grech, R.; Muscat, J.; De Clercq, W.; Vergult, A.; D'Asseler, Y.; Camilleri, K.P.; Fabri, S.G.; Van Huffel, S.; Lemahieu, I. Review on solving the forward problem in EEG source analysis. J. Neuroeng. Rehabil., 2007, 4, 46.
31. Lazarev, V.V. On the intercorrelation of some frequency and amplitude parameters of the human EEG and its functional significance. Communication. I: Multidimensional neurodynamic organization of functional states of the brain during intellectual, perceptive and motor activity in normal subjects. Int. J. Psychophysiol., 1998, 28, 77-98.
32. Lazarev, V.V. On the intercorrelation of some frequency and amplitude parameters of the human EEG and its functional significance. Communication II: Neurodynamic imbalance in endogenous asthenic-like disorders. Int. J. Psychophysiol., 1998, 29, 277-289.
33. Liberson, W.T. Reciprocal relationship between the major EEG rhythms and latencies of evoked potential intermediate components. A tentative explanation. Electromyogr. Clin. Neurophysiol., 1989, 29, 425-432.
34. Martin, J.H. The collective electrical behavior of cortical neurons: The electroencephalogram and the mechanism of epilepsy. Principles of Neural Science, 3rd ed, 1991, Kandel, E.C.; Schwartz, J.H.; Jessell, T.M. Eds., 777-791.
35. D'Ambrosio, R. The role of glial membrane ion channels in seizures and epileptogenesis. Pharmacol. Ther., 2004, 103, 95-108.
36. Steinhauser, C.; Seifert, G. Glial membrane channels and receptors in epilepsy: Impact for generation and spread of seizure activity. Eur. J. Pharmacol., 2002, 447, 227-237.
37. McNamara, J.O.; Huang, Y.Z.; Leonard, A.S. Molecular signaling mechanisms underlying epileptogenesis. Sci. STKE, 2006, 2006, re12.
38. Grisar, T.; Lakaye, B.; Thomas, E.; Bettendorf, L.; Minet, A. The molecular neuron-glia couple and epileptogenesis. Adv. Neurol., 1999, 79, 591-602.
39. Khurgel, M.; Ivy, G.O. Astrocytes in kindling: Relevance to epileptogenesis. Epilepsy Res., 1996, 26, 163-175
40. Khurgel, M.; Switzer, R.C., 3rd; Teskey, G.C.; Spiller, A.E.; Racine, R.J.; Ivy, G.O. Activation of astrocytes during epileptogenesis in the absence of neuronal degeneration. Neurobiol. Dis., 1995, 2, 23-35.
41. Chang, F.L.; Hawrylak, N.; Greenough, W.T. Astrocytic and synaptic response to kindling in hippocampal subfield CA1. I. Synaptogenesis in response to kindling in vitro. Brain Res., 1993, 603, 302-308.
42. Hawrylak, N.; Chang, F.L.; Greenough, W.T. Astrocytic and synaptic response to kindling in hippocampal subfield CA1. II. Synaptogenesis and astrocytic process increases to in vivo kindling. Brain Res., 1993, 603, 309-316.
43. Vezzani, A.; Ravizza, T.; Balosso, S.; Aronica, E. Glia as a source of cytokines: Implications for neuronal excitability and survival. Epilepsia, 2008, 49(Suppl 2), 24-32.
44. Barres, B.A. What is a glial cell? Glia, 2003, 43, 4-5.
45. Barres, B.A. New roles for glia. J. Neurosci., 1991, 11, 3685-3694.
46. Ballabh, P.; Braun, A.; Nedergaard, M. The blood-brain barrier: An overview: Structure, regulation, and clinical implications. Neurobiol. Dis., 2004, 16, 1-13.
47. Ueno, M. Molecular anatomy of the brain endothelial barrier: An overview of the distributional features. Curr. Med. Chem., 2007, 14, 1199-1206.
48. Araque, A.; Parpura, V.; Sanzgiri, R.P.; Haydon, P.G. Tripartite synapses: Glia, the unacknowledged partner. Trends Neurosci., 1999, 22, 208-215.
49. Ihrie, R.A.; Alvarez-Buylla, A. Cells in the astroglial lineage are neural stem cells. Cell Tissue Res., 2008, 331, 179-191.
50. Gritti, A.; Bonfanti, L. Neuronal-glial interactions in central nervous system neurogenesis: The neural stem cell perspective. Neuron Glia Biol., 2007, 3, 309-323.
51. Jordan, J.D.; Ma, D.K.; Ming, G.L.; Song, H. Cellular niches for endogenous neural stem cells in the adult brain. CNS Neurol. Disord. Drug Targets, 2007, 6, 336-341.
52. Wang, D.D.; Bordey, A. The astrocyte odyssey. Prog. Neurobiol., 2008,
53. Nagler, K.; Mauch, D.H.; Pfrieger, F.W. Glia-derived signals induce synapse formation in neurones of the rat central nervous system. J. Physiol., 2001, 533, 665-679.
54. He, F.; Sun, Y.E. Glial cells more than support cells? Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol., 2007, 39, 661-665.
55. Ullian, E.M.; Christopherson, K.S.; Barres, B.A. Role for glia in synaptogenesis. Glia, 2004, 47, 209-216.
56. Slezak, M.; Pfrieger, F.W. New roles for astrocytes: Regulation of CNS synaptogenesis. Trends Neurosci., 2003, 26, 531-535.
57. Steinmetz, C.C.; Buard, I.; Claudepierre, T.; Nagler, K.; Pfrieger, F.W. Regional variations in the glial influence on synapse development in the mouse CNS. J. Physiol., 2006, 577, 249-261.
58. Goritz, C.; Mauch, D.H.; Nagler, K.; Pfrieger, F.W. Role of gliaderived cholesterol in synaptogenesis: New revelations in the synapse-glia affair. J. Physiol. Paris, 2002, 96, 257-263.
59. Pfrieger, F.W. Outsourcing in the brain: Do neurons depend on cholesterol delivery by astrocytes? Bioessays, 2003, 25, 72-78.
60. Mauch, D.H.; Nagler, K.; Schumacher, S.; Goritz, C.; Muller, E.C.; Otto, A.; Pfrieger, F.W. CNS synaptogenesis promoted by gliaderived cholesterol. Science, 2001, 294, 1354-1357.
61. Hu, R.; Cai, W.Q.; Wu, X.G.; Yang, Z. Astrocyte-derived estrogen enhances synapse formation and synaptic transmission between cultured neonatal rat cortical neurons. Neuroscience, 2007, 144, 1229-1240.
62. Elmariah, S.B.; Hughes, E.G.; Oh, E.J.; Balice-Gordon, R.J. Neurotrophin signaling among neurons and glia during formation of tripartite synapses. Neuron Glia Biol., 2005, 1, 1-11.
63. Elmariah, S.B.; Oh, E.J.; Hughes, E.G.; Balice-Gordon, R.J. Astrocytes regulate inhibitory synapse formation via Trk-mediated modulation of postsynaptic GABAA receptors. J. Neurosci., 2005, 25, 3638-3650.
64. Christopherson, K.S.; Ullian, E.M.; Stokes, C.C.; Mullowney, C.E.; Hell, J.W.; Agah, A.; Lawler, J.; Mosher, D.F.; Bornstein, P.; Barres, B.A. Thrombospondins are astrocyte-secreted proteins that promote CNS synaptogenesis. Cell, 2005, 120, 421-433.
65. Nadkarni, S.; Jung, P.; Levine, H. Astrocytes optimize the synaptic transmission of information. PLoS Comput. Biol., 2008, 4, e1000088.
66. Nadkarni, S.; Jung, P. Modeling synaptic transmission of the tripartite synapse. Phys. Biol., 2007, 4, 1-9.
67. Tritsch, N.X.; Bergles, D.E. Defining the role of astrocytes in neuromodulation. Neuron, 2007, 54, 497-500.
68. Oliet, S.H.; Piet, R.; Poulain, D.A. Control of glutamate clearance and synaptic efficacy by glial coverage of neurons. Science, 2001, 292, 923-926.
69. Schousboe, A. Role of astrocytes in the maintenance and modulation of glutamatergic and GABAergic neurotransmission. Neurochem. Res., 2003, 28, 347-352.
70. Danbolt, N.C. Glutamate uptake. Prog. Neurobiol., 2001, 65, 1-105.
71. Derouiche, A. The perisynaptic astrocyte process as a glial compartment: immunolabeling for glutamine synthatase and other glial markers. Non-Neuronal Cells of the Nervous System: Function and Dysfunction (Hertz, L., ed) Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2004, 147-163.
72. Lian, X.Y.; Stringer, J.L. Astrocytes contribute to regulation of extracellular calcium and potassium in the rat cerebral cortex during spreading depression. Brain Res., 2004, 1012, 177-184.
73. Walz, W. Role of glial cells in the regulation of the brain ion microenvironment. Prog. Neurobiol., 1989, 33, 309-333.
74. Walz, W. Role of astrocytes in the clearance of excess extracellular potassium. Neurochem. Int., 2000, 36, 291-300.
75. Walz, W.; Hertz, L. Functional interactions between neurons and astrocytes. II. Potassium homeostasis at the cellular level. Prog. Neurobiol., 1983, 20, 133-183.
76. Montana, V.; Malarkey, E.B.; Verderio, C.; Matteoli, M.; Parpura, V. Vesicular transmitter release from astrocytes. Glia, 2006, 54, 700-715.
77. Chen, X.K.; Xiong, Y.F.; Zhou, Z. "Kiss-and-run" exocytosis in astrocytes. Neuroscientist, 2006, 12, 375-378.
78. Haydon, P.G.; Carmignoto, G. Astrocyte control of synaptic transmission and neurovascular coupling. Physiol. Rev., 2006, 86, 1009-1031.
79. Nadkarni, S.; Jung, P. Spontaneous oscillations of dressed neurons: A new mechanism for epilepsy? Phys. Rev. Lett., 2003, 91, 268101.
80. Halassa, M.M.; Fellin, T.; Haydon, P.G. The tripartite synapse: Roles for gliotransmission in health and disease. Trends Mol. Med., 2007, 13, 54-63.
81. Halassa, M.M.; Fellin, T.; Takano, H.; Dong, J.H.; Haydon, P.G. Synaptic islands defined by the territory of a single astrocyte. J. Neurosci., 2007, 27, 6473-6477.
82. Chih, C.P.; Roberts Jr, E.L. Energy substrates for neurons during neural activity: A critical review of the astrocyte-neuron lactate shuttle hypothesis. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab., 2003, 23, 1263-1281.
83. Chih, C.P.; Lipton, P.; Roberts, E.L., Jr. Do active cerebral neurons really use lactate rather than glucose? Trends Neurosci., 2001, 24, 573-578.
84. Sibson, N.R.; Dhankhar, A.; Mason, G.F.; Rothman, D.L.; Behar, K.L.; Shulman, R.G. Stoichiometric coupling of brain glucose metabolism and glutamatergic neuronal activity. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 1998, 95, 316-321.
85. Rothman, D.L.; Sibson, N.R.; Hyder, F.; Shen, J.; Behar, K.L.; Shulman, R.G. In vivo nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy studies of the relationship between the glutamate-glutamine neurotransmitter cycle and functional neuroenergetics. Philos Trans R Soc. Lond B Biol. Sci., 1999, 354, 1165-1177.
86. Magistretti, P.J.; Pellerin, L.; Rothman, D.L.; Shulman, R.G. Energy on demand. Science, 1999, 283, 496-497.
87. Pellerin, L.; Bonvento, G.; Chatton, J.; Pierre, K.; Magistretti, P.J. Role of neuron-glia interactions in brain energy metabolism: implications for neurodegenerative disorders. Diabetes Nutr. Metab., 2002, 15, 268-273; discussion 273.
88. Magistretti, P.J. Neuron-glia metabolic coupling and plasticity. J. Exp. Biol., 2006, 209, 2304-2311.
89. Maher, F.; Simpson, I.A. Modulation of expression of glucose transporters GLUT3 and GLUT1 by potassium and N-methyl-Daspartate in cultured cerebellar granule neurons. Mol. Cell Neurosci., 1994, 5, 369-375.
90. Wheeler, T.J.; Simpson, I.A.; Sogin, D.C.; Hinkle, P.C.; Cushman, S.W. Detection of the rat adipose cell glucose transporter with antibody against the human red cell glucose transporter. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 1982, 105, 89-95.
91. Lee, W.H.; Bondy, C.A. Ischemic injury induces brain glucose transporter gene expression. Endocrinology, 1993, 133, 2540-2544.
92. Gerhart, D.Z.; Leino, R.L.; Taylor, W.E.; Borson, N.D.; Drewes, L.R. GLUT1 and GLUT3 gene expression in gerbil brain following brief ischemia: An in situ hybridization study. Brain Res. Mol. Brain Res., 1994, 25, 313-322.
93. Maher, F.; Simpson, I.A. The GLUT3 glucose transporter is the predominant isoform in primary cultured neurons: Assessment by biosynthetic and photoaffinity labelling. Biochem. J., 1994, 301(Pt 2), 379-384.
94. Nagamatsu, S.; Sawa, H.; Kamada, K.; Nakamichi, Y.; Yoshimoto, K.; Hoshino, T. Neuron-specific glucose transporter (NSGT): CNS distribution of GLUT3 rat glucose transporter (RGT3) in rat central neurons. FEBS Lett., 1993, 334, 289-295.
95. McCall, A.L.; Van Bueren, A.M.; Moholt-Siebert, M.; Cherry, N.J.; Woodward, W.R. Immunohistochemical localization of the neuron-specific glucose transporter (GLUT3) to neuropil in adult rat brain. Brain Res., 1994, 659, 292-297.
96. Gerhart, D.Z.; Broderius, M.A.; Borson, N.D.; Drewes, L.R. Neurons and microvessels express the brain glucose transporter protein GLUT3. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 1992, 89, 733-737.
97. Lowry, J.P.; Demestre, M.; Fillenz, M. Relation between cerebral blood flow and extracellular glucose in rat striatum during mild hypoxia and hyperoxia. Dev. Neurosci., 1998, 20, 52-58.
98. Lowry, J.P.; Miele, M.; O'Neill, R.D.; Boutelle, M.G.; Fillenz, M. An amperometric glucose-oxidase/poly(o-phenylenediamine) biosensor for monitoring brain extracellular glucose: in vivo characterisation in the striatum of freely-moving rats. J. Neurosci. Methods, 1998, 79, 65-74.
99. Lowry, J.P.; O'Neill, R.D.; Boutelle, M.G.; Fillenz, M. Continuous monitoring of extracellular glucose concentrations in the striatum of freely moving rats with an implanted glucose biosensor. J. Neurochem., 1998, 70, 391-396.
100. Fillenz, M.; Lowry, J.P. The relation between local cerebral blood flow and extracellular glucose concentration in rat striatum. Exp. Physiol., 1998, 83, 233-238.
101. Fillenz, M.; Lowry, J.P. Studies of the source of glucose in the extracellular compartment of the rat brain. Dev. Neurosci., 1998, 20, 365-368.
102. Simpson, I.A.; Dwyer, D.; Malide, D.; Moley, K.H.; Travis, A.; Vannucci, S.J. The facilitative glucose transporter GLUT3: 20 years of distinction. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab., 2008, 295, E242-253.
103. Pellegri, G.; Rossier, C.; Magistretti, P.J.; Martin, J.L. Cloning, localization and induction of mouse brain glycogen synthase. Brain Res. Mol. Brain Res., 1996, 38, 191-199.
104. Pellerin, L.; Pellegri, G.; Martin, J.L.; Magistretti, P.J. Expression of monocarboxylate transporter mRNAs in mouse brain: Support for a distinct role of lactate as an energy substrate for the neonatal vs. adult brain. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 1998, 95, 3990-3995.
105. Brown, A.M.; Wender, R.; Ransom, B.R. Metabolic substrates other than glucose support axon function in central white matter. J. Neurosci. Res., 2001, 66, 839-843.
106. Wiesinger, H.; Hamprecht, B.; Dringen, R. Metabolic pathways for glucose in astrocytes. Glia, 1997, 21, 22-34.
107. Medina, J.M.; Tabernero, A. Lactate utilization by brain cells and its role in CNS development. J. Neurosci. Res., 2005, 79, 2-10.
108. 18F-2-deoxyglucose signal in PET activation studies. Mol. Psych., 1996, 1, 445-452.
109. Brown, A.M.; Ransom, B.R. Astrocyte glycogen and brain energy metabolism. Glia, 2007, 55, 1263-1271.
110. Brown, A.M. Brain glycogen re-awakened. J. Neurochem., 2004, 89, 537-552.
111. Brown, A.M.; Baltan Tekkok, S.; Ransom, B.R. Energy transfer from astrocytes to axons: The role of CNS glycogen. Neurochem. Int., 2004, 45, 529-536.
112. Brown, A.M.; Tekkok, S.B.; Ransom, B.R. Glycogen regulation and functional role in mouse white matter. J. Physiol., 2003, 549, 501-512.
113. Brown, A.M.; Sickmann, H.M.; Fosgerau, K.; Lund, T.M.; Schousboe, A.; Waagepetersen, H.S.; Ransom, B.R. Astrocyte glycogen metabolism is required for neural activity during aglycemia or intense stimulation in mouse white matter. J. Neurosci. Res., 2005, 79, 74-80.
114. Cruz, N.F.; Ball, K.K.; Dienel, G.A. Functional imaging of focal brain activation in conscious rats: Impact of (14)Cglucose metabolite spreading and release. J. Neurosci. Res., 2007, 85, 3254-3266.
115. Hyder, F.; Patel, A.B.; Gjedde, A.; Rothman, D.L.; Behar, K.L.; Shulman, R.G. Neuronal-glial glucose oxidation and glutamatergic-GABAergic function. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab., 2006, 26, 865-877.
116. Simpson, I.A.; Carruthers, A.; Vannucci, S.J. Supply and demand in cerebral energy metabolism: The role of nutrient transporters. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab., 2007, 27, 1766-1791.
117. Hertz, L.; Dienel, G.A. Lactate transport and transporters: General principles and functional roles in brain cells. J. Neurosci. Res., 2005, 79, 11-18.
118. Pierre, K.; Pellerin, L. Monocarboxylate transporters in the central nervous system: Distribution, regulation and function. J. Neurochem., 2005, 94, 1-14.
119. Pellerin, L.; Bouzier-Sore, A.K.; Aubert, A.; Serres, S.; Merle, M.; Costalat, R.; Magistretti, P.J. Activity-dependent regulation of energy metabolism by astrocytes: An update. Glia, 2007, 55, 1251-1262.
120. Wender, R.; Brown, A.M.; Fern, R.; Swanson, R.A.; Farrell, K.; Ransom, B.R. Astrocytic glycogen influences axon function and survival during glucose deprivation in central white matter. J. Neurosci., 2000, 20, 6804-6810.
121. Dringen, R.; Schmoll, D.; Cesar, M.; Hamprecht, B. Incorporation of radioactivity from [14C]lactate into the glycogen of cultured mouse astroglial cells. Evidence for gluconeogenesis in brain cells. Biol. Chem. Hoppe Seyler., 1993, 374, 343-347.
122. Loffler, T.; Al-Robaiy, S.; Bigl, M.; Eschrich, K.; Schliebs, R. Expression of fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase mRNA isoforms in normal and basal forebrain cholinergic lesioned rat brain. Int. J. Dev. Neurosci., 2001, 19, 279-285.
123. Mazzio, E.; Soliman, K.F. The role of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis in the cytoprotection of neuroblastoma cells against 1-methyl 4-phenylpyridinium ion toxicity. Neurotoxicology, 2003, 24, 137-147.
124. Hevor, T.K. Some aspects of carbohydrate metabolism in the brain. Biochimie, 1994, 76, 111-120.
125. Hevor, T.K.; Delorme, P.; Beauvillain, J.C. Glycogen synthesis and immunocytochemical study of fructose-1,6-biphosphatase in methionine sulfoximine epileptogenic rodent brain. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab., 1986, 6, 292-297.
126. Hevor, T.K.; Delorme, P.; Gayet, J. Glycogen content and fructose-1, 6-biphosphatase activity in methionine sulfoximine epileptogenic mouse brain and liver after protein synthesis inhibition. Neuropathol. Appl. Neurobiol., 1985, 11, 129-139.
127. Cataldo, A.M.; Broadwell, R.D. Cytochemical identification of cerebral glycogen and glucose-6-phosphatase activity under normal and experimental conditions. II. Choroid plexus and ependymal epithelia, endothelia and pericytes. J. Neurocytol., 1986, 15, 511-524.
128. Hertz, L.; Peng, L.; Dienel, G.A. Energy metabolism in astrocytes: High rate of oxidative metabolism and spatiotemporal dependence on glycolysis/ glycogenolysis. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab., 2007, 27, 219-249.
129. Hertz, L. The astrocyte-neuron lactate shuttle: A challenge of a challenge. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab., 2004, 24, 1241-1248.
130. Gruetter, R. Glycogen: The forgotten cerebral energy store. J. Neurosci. Res., 2003, 74, 179-183.
131. Gruetter, R.; Adriany, G.; Choi, I.Y.; Henry, P.G.; Lei, H.; Oz, G. Localized in vivo 13C NMR spectroscopy of the brain. NMR Biomed., 2003, 16, 313-338.
132. Choi, I.Y.; Gruetter, R. In vivo 13C NMR assessment of brain glycogen concentration and turnover in the awake rat. Neurochem. Int., 2003, 43, 317-322.
133. Choi, I.Y.; Seaquist, E.R.; Gruetter, R. Effect of hypoglycemia on brain glycogen metabolism in vivo. J. Neurosci. Res., 2003, 72, 25-32.
134. Hertz, L.; Dringen, R.; Schousboe, A.; Robinson, S.R. Astrocytes: glutamate producers for neurons. J. Neurosci. Res., 1999, 57, 417-428.
135. Tekkok, S.B.; Brown, A.M.; Westenbroek, R.; Pellerin, L.; Ransom, B.R. Transfer of glycogen-derived lactate from astrocytes to axons via specific monocarboxylate transporters supports mouse optic nerve activity. J. Neurosci. Res., 2005, 81, 644-652
136. Shulman, R.G.; Hyder, F.; Rothman, D.L. Cerebral energetics and the glycogen shunt: Neurochemical basis of functional imaging. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 2001, 98, 6417-6422.
137. Salm, A.K.; McCarthy, K.D. The evidence for astrocytes as a target for central noradrenergic activity: Expression of adrenergic receptors. Brain Res. Bull., 1992, 29, 265-275.
138. Masmoudi-Kouki, O.; Gandolfo, P.; Castel, H.; Leprince, J.; Fournier, A.; Dejda, A.; Vaudry, H.; Tonon, M.C. Role of PACAP and VIP in astroglial functions. Peptides, 2007, 28, 1753-1760.
139. Magistretti, P.J.; Cardinaux, J.R.; Martin, J.L. VIP and PACAP in the CNS: Regulators of glial energy metabolism and modulators of glutamatergic signaling. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., 1998, 865, 213-225.
140. Waschek, J.A. Vasoactive intestinal peptide: An important trophic factor and developmental regulator? Dev. Neurosci., 1995, 17, 1-7.
141. Laming, P.R.; Kimelberg, H.; Robinson, S.; Salm, A.; Hawrylak, N.; Muller, C.; Roots, B.; Ng, K. Neuronal-glial interactions and behaviour. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev., 2000, 24, 295-340.
142. Sorg, O.; Magistretti, P.J. Characterization of the glycogenolysis elicited by vasoactive intestinal peptide, noradrenaline and adenosine in primary cultures of mouse cerebral cortical astrocytes. Brain Res., 1991, 563, 227-233.
143. Allaman, I.; Pellerin, L.; Magistretti, P.J. Protein targeting to glycogen mRNA expression is stimulated by noradrenaline in mouse cortical astrocytes. Glia, 2000, 30, 382-391.
144. Cloix, J.F.; Ardourel, M.Y.; Hévor, T. Glycogen metabolism and brain pathologies. Central Nervous Syst. Agents Med. Chem., 2008, 8, 187-197.
145. Oz, G.; Henry, P.G.; Seaquist, E.R.; Gruetter, R. Direct, noninvasive measurement of brain glycogen metabolism in humans. Neurochem. Int., 2003, 43, 323-329.
146. Oz, G.; Seaquist, E.R.; Kumar, A.; Criego, A.B.; Benedict, L.E.; Rao, J.P.; Henry, P.G.; Van De Moortele, P.F.; Gruetter, R. Human brain glycogen content and metabolism: Implications on its role in brain energy metabolism. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab., 2007, 292, E946-951.
147. Lei, H.; Gruetter, R. Effect of chronic hypoglycaemia on glucose concentration and glycogen content in rat brain: A localized 13C NMR study. J. Neurochem., 2006, 99, 260-268.
148. Lei, H.; Morgenthaler, F.; Yue, T.; Gruetter, R. Direct validation of in vivo localized 13C MRS measurements of brain glycogen. Magn. Reson. Med., 2007, 57, 243-248.
149. Choi, I.Y.; Tkac, I.; Ugurbil, K.; Gruetter, R. Noninvasive measurements of [1-(13)C]glycogen concentrations and metabolism in rat brain in vivo. J. Neurochem., 1999, 73, 1300-1308.
150. Gruetter, R. In vivo 13C NMR studies of compartmentalized cerebral carbohydrate metabolism. Neurochem. Int., 2002, 41, 143-154.
151. Bernard-Hélary, K.; Ardourel, M.; Hévor, T.; Cloix, J.-F. In vivo and in vitro glycogenic effects of methionine sulfoximine are different in two inbred strains of mice. Brain Res, 2002, 929, 147-155.
152. Delorme, P.; Hevor, T. Glycogen particles in méthionine sulfoximine epileptogenic rodent brain and liver after the administration of methionine actinomycin D. Neuropathol. Appl. Neurobiol., 1985, 11, 117-128.
153. Folbergrova, J. Glycogen and glycogen phosphorylase in the cerebral cortex of mice under the influence of methionine sulphoximine. J. Neurochem., 1973, 20, 547-557.
154. Folbergrova, J.; Passonneau, J.V.; Lowry, O.H.; Schulz, D.W. Glycogen, ammonia and related metabolites in the brain during seizures evoked by methionine sulphoximine. J. Neurochem., 1969, 16, 191-203.
155. Hevor, T.K.; Delorme, P. Biochemical and ultrastructural study of glycogen in cultured astrocytes submitted to the convulsant methionine sulfoximine. Glia, 1991, 4, 64-69.
156. Phelps, C.H. An ultrastructural study of methionine sulphoximine-induced glycogen accumulation in astrocytes of the mouse cerebral cortex. J. Neurocytol., 1975, 4, 479-490.
157. Campbell, P.N.; Work, T.S.; Mellanby, E. The isolation of a toxic substance from agenized wheat flour. Biochem. J., 1951, 48, 106-113.
158. Bentley, H.R.; Mc, D.E.; Whitehead, J.K. Action of nitrogen trichloride on proteins; a synthesis of the toxic factor from methionine. Nature, 1950, 165, 735.
159. Bentley, H.R.; McDermott, E.E.; Whitehead, J.K. Toxic factor from agonized proteins; methionine as the essential reactant. Nature, 1950, 165, 150.
160. Gastaut, H.; Toga, M.; Naquet, R. Clinical, electrographical and anatomical study of epilepsy induced in dogs by ingestion of agenised proteins. In Temporal Lobe Epilepsy; Ed.; Baldwin, M.; Bailey, P. Thomas. Publisher,. Illinois., 1958, 57-69.
161. Wolfe, L.S.; Elliot, K.A.C. Chemical studies in regulation to convulsive conditions. In Ed.; Elliot, K.A.C. Page, I.H.; Quastel, J.H.; Neurochemistry 2nd ed. Springfield, USA, 1962, 694-697.
162. Murakoshi, I.; Sekine, T.; Maeshima, K.; Ikegami, F.; Yoshinaga, K.; Fujii, Y.; Okonogi, S. Absolute configuration of L-methionine sulfoximine as a toxic principle in Cnestis palala (Lour.) Merr. Chem. Pharm. Bull. (Tokyo), 1993, 41, 388-390.
163. Jeannoda, V.L.; Rakoto-Ranoromalala, D.A.; Valisolalao, J.; Creppy, E.E.; Dirheimer, G. Natural occurrence of methionine sulfoximine in the Connaraceae family. J. Ethnopharmacol., 1985, 14, 11-17.
164. Bernard-Hélary, K.; Lapouble, E.; Ardourel, M.; Hevor, T.; Cloix, J.-F. Correlation between brain glycogen and convulsive state in mice submitted to methionine sulfoximine. Life Sci., 2000, 67, 1773-1781.
165. Peters, E.L.; Tower, D.B. Glutamic acid and glutamine metabolism in cerebral cortex after seizures induced by methionine sulphoximine. J. Neurochem., 1959, 5, 80-90.
166. Meister, A. Inhibition of glutamine synthase and gamma glutamylcysteine synthetase by methionine sulfoximine and related compounds. In Enzyme Activated Irreversible Inhibitiors; Ed.; Seiler, N.; Jung, M.J.; Koch-Weser, J. Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1978, 187-210.
167. Somers, D.L.; Beckstead, R.M. Chronic methionine sulfoximine administration reduces synaptosomal aspartate and glutamate in rat striatum. Neurosci. Lett., 1990, 115, 335-340.
168. Fonnum, F. Glutamate: A neurotransmitter in mammalian brain. J. Neurochem., 1984, 42, 1-11.
169. Fonnum, F.; Paulsen, R.E. Comparison of transmitter amino acid levels in rat globus pallidus and neostriatum during hypoglycemia or after treatment with methionine sulfoximine or gamma-vinyl gamma-aminobutyric acid. J. Neurochem., 1990, 54, 1253-1257.
170. Engelsen, B.; Fonnum, F. The effect of methionine sulfoximine, an inhibitor of glutamine synthetase, on the levels of amino acids in the intact and decorticated rat neostriatum. Brain Res., 1985, 338, 165-168.
171. Blin, M.; Crusio, W.E.; Hevor, T.; Cloix, J.-F. Chronic inhibition of glutamine synthetase is not associated with impairment of learning and memory in mice. Brain Res. Bull., 2002, 57, 11-15
172. Dalsgaard, M.K.; Madsen, F.F.; Secher, N.H.; Laursen, H.; Quistorff, B. High glycogen levels in the hippocampus of patients with epilepsy. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab., 2007, 27, 1137-1141.
173. Folbergrova, J.; Druga, R.; Haugvicova, R.; Mares, P.; Otahal, J. Anticonvulsant and neuroprotective effect of (S)-3,4-dicarboxyphenylglycine against seizures induced in immature rats by homocysteic acid. Neuropharmacology, 2008, 54, 665-675.
174. Folbergrova, J. Energy metabolism of mouse cerebral cortex during homocysteine convulsions. Brain Res, 1974, 81, 443-454.
175. Sacktor, B.; Wilson, J.E.; Tiekert, C.G. Regulation of glycolysis in brain, in situ, during convulsions. J. Biol. Chem., 1966, 241, 5071-5075.
176. Nahorski, S.R.; Roberts, D.J.; Stewart, G.G. Some neurochemical aspects of pentamethylenetetrazole convulsive activity in rat brain. J. Neurochem., 1970, 17, 621-631.
177. King, L.J.; Lowry, O.H.; Passonneau, J.V.; Venson, V. Effects of convulsants on energy reserves in the cerebral cortex. J. Neurochem., 1967, 14, 599-611.
178. Folbergrova, J.; Ingvar, M.; Siesjo, B.K. Metabolic changes in cerebral cortex, hippocampus, and cerebellum during sustained bicuculline-induced seizures. J. Neurochem., 1981, 37, 1228-1238.
179. Chapman, A.G.; Meldrum, B.S.; Siesjo, B.K. Cerebral metabolic changes during prolonged epileptic seizures in rats. J. Neurochem., 1977, 28, 1025-1035.
180. Wang, W.; Lohi, H.; Skurat, A.V.; DePaoli-Roach, A.A.; Minassian, B.A.; Roach, P.J. Glycogen metabolism in tissues from a mouse model of Lafora disease. Arch. Biochem. Biophys., 2007, 457, 264-269.
181. Vilchez, D.; Ros, S.; Cifuentes, D.; Pujadas, L.; Valles, J.; Garcia-Fojeda, B.; Criado-Garcia, O.; Fernandez-Sanchez, E.; Medrano-Fernandez, I.; Dominguez, J.; Garcia-Rocha, M.; Soriano, E.; Rodriguez de Cordoba, S.; Guinovart, J.J. Mechanism suppressing glycogen synthesis in neurons and its demise in progressive myoclonus epilepsy. Nat. Neurosci., 2007, 10, 1407-1413.
182. Jobe, P.C.; Laird, H.E. Neurotransmitter abnormalities as determinants of seizure susceptibility and intensity in the genetic models of epilepsy. Biochem. Pharmacol., 1981, 30, 3137-3144.
183. Jobe, P.C.; Laird, H.E., 2nd; Ko, K.H.; Ray, T.; Dailey, J.W. Abnormalities in monoamine levels in the central nervous system of the genetically epilepsy-prone rat. Epilepsia, 1982, 23, 359-366.
184. Laird, H.E., 2nd; Dailey, J.W.; Jobe, P.C. Neurotransmitter abnormalities in genetically epileptic rodents. Fed. Proc., 1984, 43, 2505-2509.
185. Lallement, G.; Delamanche, I.S.; Pernot-Marino, I.; Baubichon, D.; Denoyer, M.; Carpentier, P.; Blanchet, G. Neuroprotective activity of glutamate receptor antagonists against soman-induced hippocampal damage:
186. Lallement, G.; Carpentier, P.; Pernot-Marino, I.; Baubichon, D.; Collet, A.; Blanchet, G. Transient impairment of the gabaergic function during initiation of soman-induced seizures. Brain Res., 1993, 629, 239-244.
187. Lallement, G.; Denoyer, M.; Collet, A.; Pernot-Marino, I.; Baubichon, D.; Monmaur, P.; Blanchet, G. Changes in hippocampal acetylcholine and glutamate extracellular levels during soman-induced seizures: Influence of septal cholinoceptive cells. Neurosci. Lett., 1992, 139, 104-107.
188. Hevor, T. Methionine sulfoximine has no effect on gamma aminobutyric acid concentration in the brain. Biogenic Amines, 1996, 12, 445-461.
189. Hevor, T.; Richard, O.; Pichon, J.; Hélary, K.; Cloix, J.F. Acetycholine, catecholamine, indolamine, and GABA levels in the brain of rats submitted to a convulsant. Neurochemical markers of degenerative nervous diseases and drug addiction, GA Qureshi, H. Parvez, P. Caudy, S. Parvez, Eds., 1998, Progress in HPLC-HPCE, volume 7, VSP, Zest, The Netherlands, 383-411.
190. Hevor, T.K.; Delorme, P. Possible involvement of indolamines in the glycogenic effect of the convulsant methionine sulfoximine in rat brain. Experientia, 1990, 46, 710-713.
191. Hevor, T.K.; Aissi, E.; Delorme, P. Correlation between carbohydrate and catecholamine level impairments in methionine sulfoximine epileptogenic rat brain. Neurochem. Res., 1990, 15, 861-868.
192. Magistretti, P.J.; Morrison, J.H.; Shoemaker, W.J.; Sapin, V.; Bloom, F.E. Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide induces glycogenolysis in mouse cortical slices: A possible regulatory mechanism for the local control of energy metabolism. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 1981, 78, 6535-6539.
193. Pentreath, V.W.; Seal, L.H.; Kai-Kai, M.A. Incorporation of [3H]2-deoxyglucose into glycogen in nervous tissues. Neuroscience, 1982, 7, 759-767.
194. Quach, T.T.; Duchemin, A.M.; Rose, C.; Schwartz, J.C. 3H-Glycogen hydrolysis elicited by histamine in mouse brain slices: Selective involvement of H1 receptors. Mol. Pharmacol., 1980, 17, 301-308.
195. Quach, T.T.; Rose, C.; Duchemin, A.M.; Schwartz, J.C. Glycogenolysis induced by serotonin in brain: Identification of a new class of receptor. Nature, 1982, 298, 373-375.
196. Quach, T.T.; Rose, C.; Schwartz, J.C. [3H]Glycogen hydrolysis in brain slices: Responses to neurotransmitters and modulation of noradrenaline receptors. J. Neurochem., 1978, 30, 1335-1341.
197. Ingvar, M.; Lindvall, O.; Folbergrova, J.; Siesjo, B.K. Influence of lesions of the noradrenergic locus coeruleus system on the cerebral metabolic response to bicuculline-induced seizures. Brain Res., 1983, 264, 225-231.
198. Fabene, P.F.; Weiczner, R.; Marzola, P.; Nicolato, E.; Calderan, L.; Andrioli, A.; Farkas, E.; Sule, Z.; Mihaly, A.; Sbarbati, A. Structural and functional MRI following 4-aminopyridine-induced seizures: A comparative imaging and anatomical study. Neurobiol. Dis., 2006, 21, 80-89.
199. Fabene, P.F.; Sbarbati, A. In vivo MRI in different models of experimental epilepsy. Curr. Drug Targets, 2004, 5, 629-636.